Category: Fever Research

  • Native American flute

    The Native American flute is a musical instrument and flute that is held in front of the player, has open finger holes, and has two chambers: one for collecting the breath of the player and a second chamber which creates sound. The player breathes into one end of the flute without the need for an embouchure. A block on the outside of the instrument directs the player’s breath from the first chamber—called the slow air chamber—into the second chamber—called the sound chamber. The design of a sound hole at the proximal end of the sound chamber causes air from the player’s breath to vibrate. This vibration causes a steady resonance of air pressure in the sound chamber that creates sound.

    Native American flutes comprise a wide range of designs, sizes, and variations—far more varied than most other classes of woodwind instruments.

    Names

    The instrument is known by many names: Some of the reasons for the variety of names include: the varied uses of the instrument (e.g. courting), the wide dispersal of the instrument across language groups and geographic regions, legal statutes (see the Indian Arts And Crafts Act), and the Native American name controversy.

    Native American names for the flute include:

    Cheyenne: tâhpeno
    Chippewa: bĭbĭ’gwûn
    Dakota: ćotaŋke
    Kiowa: do’mba’
    Lakota: Šiyótȟaŋka
    Opata: bícusirina (Teguima language)
    Unami: achipiquon (Lenape)
    Zuni: Tchá-he-he-lon-ne, lit.’sacred warbling flute’
    Alternative English-language names include: American Indian courting flute, courting flute, Grandfather’s flute, Indian flute, love flute, Native American courting flute, Native American love flute,Native American style flute (see the Indian Arts And Crafts Act), North American flute, Plains flute, and Plains Indian courting flute.

    Names in other languages include:

    Bavarian: Indianafletn
    Dutch: Indiaans-Amerikaanse fluit
    Esperanto: indiĝena amerikana fluto
    French: Siyotanka
    German: Indianerflöte
    Hawaiian: Papa ʻAmelika ʻohe kani
    Japanese: ネイティブアメリカンフルート, romanized: Neitibu amerikan furūto
    Korean: 인디언 피리, romanized: indieon pili
    Polish: Flet indiański
    Russian: Индейская флейта, romanized: indeiskaya fleita
    Portuguese: Flauta Nativa Americana

    Naming conventions

    By convention, English-language uses of the name of the instrument are capitalized as “Native American flute”. This is in keeping with the English-language capitalization of other musical instruments that use a cultural name, such as “French horn”.

    The prevalent term for a person who plays Native American flutes is “flutist”. This term predominates the term “flautist”. “Flute maker” is the predominant term for people who “craft” Native American flutes.

    Organology

    The instrument is classified in the 2011 revision of the Hornbostel–Sachs system by the MIMO Consortium as 421.23—Flutes with internal duct formed by an internal baffle (natural node, block of resin) plus an external tied-on cover (cane, wood, hide). This HS class also includes the Suling.

    Although Native American flutes are played by directing air into one end, it is not strictly an end-blown flute, since the sound mechanism uses a fipple design using an external block that is fixed to the instrument.

    The use of open finger holes (finger holes that are played by the direct application and removal of fingers, as opposed to keys) classifies the Native American flute as a simple system flute.

    History

    There are many narratives about how different Indigenous peoples of the Americas invented the flute. In one narrative, woodpeckers pecked holes in hollow branches while searching for termites; when the wind blew along the holes, people nearby heard its music. Another narrative from the Tucano culture describes Uakti, a creature with holes in his body that would produce sound when he ran or the wind blew through him.

    It is not well known how the design of the Native American flute developed before 1823. Some of the influences may have been:

    Branches or stalks with holes drilled by insects that created sounds when the wind blew.
    The design of the atlatl.
    Clay instruments from Mesoamerica.
    The Anasazi flute developed by Ancestral Puebloans of Oasisamerica.
    Experience by Native Americans constructing organ pipes as early as 1524.
    Recorders that came from Europe.
    Flutes of the Tohono O’odham culture (often referred to by the archaic exonym “Papago flutes”). Although crafted by a Native American people, these instruments are not strictly Native American flutes since they do not have an external block. In place of the block, the flue is formed by the player’s finger on top of the sound mechanism. This style of flute may have been a precursor to, or one of the influences for, the Native American flute.

    Flutes of the Akimel O’odham culture (often referred to by the archaic exonym “Pima flutes”). These flutes may have directly evolved from flutes of the Tohono O’odham culture, with the addition of a piece of cloth over the sound mechanism to serve as the external block.
    It is also possible that instruments were carried from other cultures during migrations.

    Flutes of the Mississippian culture have been found that appear to have the two-chambered design characteristic of Native American flutes. They were constructed of river cane. The earliest such flute is curated by the Museum Collections of the University of Arkansas, Fayetteville. It was recovered in about 1931 by Samuel C. Dellinger and more recently identified as a flute by James A. Rees, Jr. of the Arkansas Archeological Society. The artifact is known colloquially as “The Breckenridge Flute” and was conjectured to date in the range 750–1350 CE. This conjecture proved to be accurate when, in 2013, a sample from the artifact yielded a date range of 1020–1160 CE (95% probability calibrated date range).

    The earliest extant Native American flute crafted of wood was collected by the Italian adventurer Giacomo Costantino Beltrami in 1823 on his search for the headwaters of the Mississippi River. It is now in the collection of the Museo Civico di Scienze Naturali in Bergamo, Italy.

    Construction

    Components

    The two ends of a Native American flute along the longitudinal axis are called the head end (the end closest to the player’s mouth—also called the North end, proximal end, or top end) and the foot end (also called the bottom end, distal end, or South end).

    The Native American flute has two air chambers: the slow air chamber (also called the SAC, compression chamber, mouth chamber, breath chamber, first chamber, passive air chamber, primary chamber, or wind chamber) and the sound chamber (also called the pipe body, resonating chamber, tone chamber, playing chamber, or variable tube). A plug (also called an internal wall, stopper, baffle, or partition) inside the instrument separates the slow air chamber from the sound chamber.

    The block on the outside of the instrument is a separate part that can be removed. The block is also called the bird, the fetish, the saddle, or the totem. The block is tied by a strap onto the nest of the flute. The block moves air through a flue (also called the channel, furrow, focusing channel, throat, or windway) from the slow air chamber to the sound chamber. The block is often in the shape of a bird.

    Note that flutes of the Mi’kmaq culture are typically constructed from a separate block, but the block is permanently fixed to the body of the flute during construction (typically with glue). Even though these flutes do not have a movable block, they are generally considered to be Native American flutes.

    The precise alignment and longitudinal position of the block is critical to getting the desired sound from the instrument. The longitudinal position also has a modest effect on the pitches produced by the flute, giving the player a range of roughly 10–40 cents of pitch adjustment.

    The slow air chamber has a mouthpiece and breath hole for the player’s breath. Air flows through the slow air chamber and up the ramp, through the exit hole, and into the flue.

    The slow air chamber can serve as a secondary resonator, which can give some flutes a distinctive sound.

    The sound chamber contains the sound hole, which creates the vibration of air that causes sound when the airflow reaches the splitting edge. The sound hole can also be called the whistle hole, the window, or the true sound hole (“TSH”). The splitting edge can also be called the cutting edge, the fipple edge, the labium, or the sound edge.

    The sound chamber also has finger holes that allows the player to change the frequency of the vibrating air. Changing the frequency of the vibration changes the pitch of the sound produced.

    The finger holes on a Native American flute are open, meaning that fingers of the player cover the finger hole (rather than metal levers or pads such as those on a clarinet). This use of open finger holes classifies the Native American flute as a simple system flute. Because of the use of open finger holes, the flutist must be able to reach all the finger holes on the instrument with their fingers, which can limit the size of the largest flute (and lowest pitched flute) that a given flutist can play. The finger holes can also be called the note holes, the playing holes, the tone holes, or the stops.

    The foot end of the flute can have direction holes. These holes affect the pitch of the flute when all the finger holes are covered. The direction holes also relate to (and derive their name from) the Four Directions of East, South, West, and North found in many Indigenous American stories. The direction holes can also be called the tuning holes or wind holes.

    In addition to the Components of the Native American flute diagram shown above with English-language labels, diagrams are available with labels in Cherokee, Dutch, Esperanto, French, German, Japanese, Korean, Polish, Russian, and Spanish.

    Spacer plate

    An alternate design for the sound mechanism uses a spacer plate to create the flue. The spacer plate sits between the nest area on the body of the flute and the removable block. The spacer plate is typically held in place by the same strap that holds the block on the instrument. The splitting edge can also be incorporated into the design of the spacer plate.

    The spacer plate is often constructed of metal, but spacer plates have been constructed of wood, bark, and ceramic.

    When positioning and securing the removable block with the strap, the use of a spacer plate provides and additional degree of control over the sound and tuning of the flute. However, it also adds a degree of complexity when performing the task of securing both the block and the spacer plate.

    Plains style vs. Woodlands style

    Various sources describe attributes of Native American flute that are termed “Plains style” and “Woodlands style”. However, there is no general consensus among the various sources about what these terms mean. According to various sources the distinction is based on:

    whether the flute uses a spacer plate to create the flue of the instrument,
    whether the flue is in the body of the flute or the bottom of the block,
    the sharpness of the angle of the splitting edge,
    whether the finger holes are burned or bored into the body of the flute,
    the design of the mouthpiece (blunt and placed against the lips vs. designed to go between the lips),
    the timbre of the sound of the flute, or
    details of the fingering for the primary scale.

    Branch flutes

    While many contemporary Native American flutes are crafted from milled lumber, some flutes are crafted from a branch of a tree. The construction techniques vary widely, but some makers of branch flutes will attempt to split the branch down a centerline, hollow out the inside, and then mate the halves back together for the completed flute.

    Double and multiple flutes

    A double Native American flute is a type of double flute. It has two sound chambers that can be played simultaneously. The two chambers could have the same length or be different lengths.

    The secondary sound chamber can hold a fixed pitch, in which case the term “drone flute” is sometimes used. The fixed pitch could match the fingering of the main sound chamber with all the finger holes covered, or it could match some other pitch on the main sound chamber. Alternately, various configurations of finger holes on the two sound chambers can be used, in which case terms such as “harmony flute” or “harmonic flute” are sometimes used.

    Extending the concept, Native American flutes with three or more chambers have been crafted. The general term “multiple flute” is sometimes used for these designs.

    Dimensions

    Some Native American flutes constructed by traditional techniques were crafted using measurements of the body. The length of the flute was the distance from inside of the elbow to tip of the index finger. The length of the slow air chamber was the width of the fist. The distance between the sound hole and first finger hole was the width of the fist. The distance between finger holes would be the width of a thumb. The distance from the last finger hole to the end of the flute was the width of the fist.

    Flute makers currently use many methods to design the dimensions of their flutes. This is very important for the location of the finger holes, since they control the pitches of the different notes of the instrument. Flute makers may use calculators to design their instruments, or use dimensions provided by other flute makers.

    Materials

    Native American flutes are traditionally crafted of a wide range of materials, including wood (cedar, juniper, walnut, cherry, and redwood are common), bamboo, saw grass, and river cane. Flute makers from Indigenous cultures would often use anything that could be converted or made into a long hollow barrel, such as old gun barrels.

    Poetic imagery regarding the covenant between flute maker and player was provided by Kevin Locke in the Songkeepers video:

    The flute maker has to take that cedar, split it open, and remove that beautiful, straight-grained, aromatic, sweet, soft, deep-red heart of the cedar. And then they will re-attach both halves and put the holes in. And so the covenant or reciprocal agreement is that the flute player will instill the heart back into the wood — put their heart back in there.

    Contemporary Native American flutes continue to use these materials, as well as plastics, ceramic, glass, and more exotic hardwoods such as ebony, padauk, and teak.

    Various materials are chosen for their aromatic qualities, workability, strength and weight, and compatibility with construction materials such as glue and various finishes. Although little objective research has been undertaken, there are many subjective opinions expressed by flute makers and players about the sound qualities associated with the various materials used in Native American flutes.

    Physical and mental benefits of the flute

    Heart rate variability

    One study that surveyed the physiological effects of playing Native American flutes found a significant positive effect on heart rate variability, a metric that is indicative of resilience to stress.

    Music therapy

    The Native American flute is still used today in Music Therapy settings. Known as Ojibwe music, usage of the flute is extremely beneficial for hospice, cancer, and cardiac patients to assist in managing anxiety, restlessness, fear, and pain. Flutes can provide a source of rehabilitation and encourage a sense of accomplishment. It guides patients in taking a deep breath and using controlled exhalations to blow through the flute, helping with exercising the lungs.

    Ergonomics

    Contemporary Native American flutes can take ergonomic considerations into account, even to the point of custom flute designs for individual flute players. However, the ergonomic issues related to these instruments are not well-studied and ergonomic designs are not widespread; one study reported that 47–64% of players reported physical discomfort at least some of the time, while over 10% of players reported moderate discomfort on an average basis.

    Fingering

    Native American flutes typically have either five or six finger holes, but any particular instrument may have from zero to seven finger holes. The instrument may include a finger hole covered by the thumb.

    The fingerings for various pitches are not standardized across all Native American flutes. However, many contemporary Native American flutes will play the primary scale using the fingering shown in the adjacent diagram.

    While the pentatonic minor scale is the primary scale on most contemporary Native American flutes, many flutes can play notes of the chromatic scale using cross-fingerings.

    Tuning

    Authentic Native American flutes and Native American ‘Style’ flutes are available in a wide variety of keys and musical temperaments—far more than typically available for other woodwind instruments. Instruments tuned to equal temperament are typically available in all keys within the range of the instrument. Instruments are also crafted in other musical temperaments, such as just intonation, and pitch standards, such as A4=432 Hz.

    Warble

    A distinctive sound of some Native American flutes, particularly traditional flutes, is called a warble (or warbling). It sounds as if the flute is vacillating back and forth between distinct pitches. However, it is actually the sound of different harmonic components of same sound coming into dominance at different times.

    John W. Coltman, in a detailed analysis of flute acoustics, describes two types of warbles in Native American flutes: One “of the order of 20 Hz” caused by a “nonlinearity in the jet current”, and a second type “in which amplitude modulation occurs in all partials but with different phases”. The first type is analyzed by Coltman in a controlled setting, but he concluded that analysis of the second type of warble “is yet to be explained”.

    The warble can be approximated by use of vibrato techniques. The phase shift that occurs between different harmonics can be observed on a spectrograph of the sound of a warbling flute.

    Written music

    Written music for the Native American flutes is often in the key of F-sharp minor, although some music is scored in other keys. However, the convention for this music written in F-sharp minor is to use a non-conforming key signature of four sharps, creating what is known as “Nakai tablature”.

    Note that the use of finger diagrams below the notes that is part a high percentage of written music for the Native American flutes is not necessarily part of Nakai tablature.

    The use of a standard key signature for written music that can be used across Native American flutes in a variety of keys classifies the instrument as a transposing instrument.

    Music

    Extensive ethnographic recordings were made by early anthropologists such as Alice Cunningham Fletcher, Franz Boas, Frank Speck, Frances Densmore, and Francis La Flesche. A small portion of these recordings included Native American flute playing. One catalog lists 110 ethnographic recordings made prior to 1930.

    These recordings document traditional flute styles in a number of different Indigenous cultures and settings.

    However, the legal and ethical issues surrounding access to these early recordings are complex. Because of incidents of misappropriation of ethnographic materials recorded within their territories, Indigenous communities today claim the right to determine whether, how and on what terms elements of their intangible cultural heritage are studied, recorded, re-used and represented by researchers, museums, commercial interests and others.

    During the period 1930–1960, few people were playing the Native American flute in public performances, or allowing recordings to be made. However, a few recordings of flute playing during this period are commercially available. One such recording is by Belo Cozad, a Kiowa flute player who made recordings for the U. S. Library of Congress in 1941.

    Revival

    During the late 1960s, the United States saw a roots revival of the Native American flute, with a new wave of flutists and artisans such as Doc Tate Nevaquaya, John Rainer, Jr., Sky Walkinstik Man Alone, and Carl Running Deer.

    The music of R. Carlos Nakai became popular in the 1980s, in particular with the release of the album “Canyon Trilogy” in 1989. His music was representative of a shift in style from a traditional approach to playing the instrument to incorporate the New-age genre. Mary Youngblood won two Grammy Awards in the Native American Music category for her Native American flute music in 2002 and 2006. She remains the only Native American flutist to be distinguished in this way, as the National Academy of Recording Arts and Sciences retired the category in 2011.

    Today, Native American flutes are being played and recognized by many different peoples and cultures around the world.

    Popular appeal

    The Native American flute has gained popularity among flute players, in large part because of its simplicity. According to a thesis by Mary Jane Jones:

    The flute’s cathartic appeal probably lies in its simplicity. In their quest to build instruments that could play several chromatic octaves with perfect intonation, Europeans produced mechanically complex instruments that require a great deal of technical skill on the part of the musician. Until a high level of competence is achieved, pouring out one‘s innermost feelings during a performance is extremely difficult. The ability to play musically and emotionally is subject to the musician‘s technical ability. As most music teachers will attest, many beginners take so long to master the necessary skills and are so focused on the technical aspects of their instruments that they must eventually be taught how to play with feeling. Struggling with the demands of their instruments over time causes them to lose the emotional connection to music that they may have felt when singing as young children. Since beginners can play melodies on the Native American flute with ease, it is possible for them to play expressively from the outset. As flute players become better acquainted with their instruments, their improvisations tend to become longer, have more complex melodies and forms, and contain more embellishments. However, the ability to express emotion through improvisation on the flute seems as easy for the beginner as it is for the advanced student.

    Flutists and composers

    Notable and award-winning Native American flutists include: R. Carlos Nakai, Charles Littleleaf, Joseph Firecrow, Kevin Locke, Aaron White, Robert Mirabal and Mary Youngblood.

    A few classical composers have written for the Native American flute, including Brent Michael Davids, James DeMars, Philip Glass, Jerod Impichchaachaaha’ Tate, and Fabio Mengozzi.

    Legal issues

    1990 Indian Arts and Crafts Act

    The 1990 Indian Arts and Crafts Act of the United States criminalized deceptive product-labeling of goods that are ostensibly made by Native Americans. In the United States, wrongfully claiming that an artifact is crafted by “an Indian” is a felony offense. The US Department of the Interior explicitly states on its informational website about the Act that, “Under the Act, an Indian is defined as a member of any federally or State recognized Indian Tribe, or an individual certified as an Indian artisan by an Indian Tribe.”

    Based on this statute, only a flute fashioned by a person who qualifies as an Indian under the terms of the statute can legally be sold as a “Native American flute” or “American Indian flute”. However, although there is no official public ruling on alternative terms that are acceptable, it is general practice that any manufacturer or vendor may legally label their work-product by other terms such as “Native American style flute” or “North American flute”. Labels such as “in the style of”, or “in the spirit of”, or “replica” may also be used.

    However, while the Act applies to offering handmade arts and crafts offered to the public for sale, it does not apply to the use of Native American flutes in situations such as performance, workshops, or recording.

    Migratory Bird Treaty Act of 1918

    The Migratory Bird Treaty Act of 1918 makes it unlawful (without a waiver) to use materials from species protected by the Act in a musical instrument. This statute applies to the eagle-bone whistle, examples of which might or might not be classified as a Native American flute depending on the particulars of their construction

  • Clapper stick

    A clapper stick (also clap-stick or split stick rattle) is a traditional idiophone common among the indigenous peoples of California. It is traditionally constructed by cutting the branch of an elderberry tree, hollowing it out, and partially splitting the branch in two. It is used to keep time and accompany singers and dancers. Many are now made of bamboo, which do not require hollowing.

    Central Sierra Miwok: țakáț’a

    Chukchansi: tá-wit

    Chumash: wansak

    Hupa: kinah¬dun-ts’e:y’

    Maidu: pak’papa

    Mutsun: sallik

    Northern Paiute: hau tsavaiya

    Northern Pomo: hay bit’abit’aka

    Plains Miwok: taka’tta

    Serrano: pă-how-it

    Tongva: araawkewe

    Tubatulabal: ka*ba.ba.ynis’t

    Western Mono: anawataki’inu

    Wintu: lasasus

    Yuki: al-lah-chi’-mah

  • Apache fiddle

    The Apache fiddle (Apache: tsii’ edo’a’tl, “wood that sings”) is a bowed string instrument used by the indigenous Apache people of the southwestern United States. The instrument consists of a plant stalk, such as that of the agave or mescal plant. One or sometimes two strings, often made of horse hair, are secured at both ends of the stalk, a bridge and nut added, and the string is played with a bow resined with pine pitch. The string is touched with the fingers to change its note. The Smithsonian Institution holds an Apache fiddle collected in 1875. In 1989 Apache fiddle maker Chesley Goseyun Wilson of Tucson, Arizona won a National Heritage Award.

  • Kokopelli

    Kokopelli is a fertility deity, usually depicted as a humpbacked flute player (often with feathers or antenna-like protrusions on his head), who is venerated by some Native American cultures in the Southwestern United States. Like most fertility deities, Kokopelli presides over both childbirth and agriculture. He is also a trickster god and represents the spirit of music.

    Myths

    Among the Hopi, Kokopelli carries unborn children on his back and distributes them to women; for this reason, young girls often fear him. He often takes part in rituals relating to marriage, and Kokopelli himself is sometimes depicted with a consort, a woman called Kokopelmimi by the Hopi. It is said that Kokopelli can be seen on the full and waning moon, much like the “man” or the “rabbit” on the moon.

    Kokopelli also presides over the reproduction of game animals, and for this reason, he is often depicted with animal companions such as rams and deer. Other common creatures associated with him include sun-bathing animals such as snakes, or water-loving animals such as lizards and insects.

    In his domain over agriculture, Kokopelli’s flute-playing chases away the winter and brings about spring. Many tribes, such as the Zuni, also associate Kokopelli with the rains. He frequently appears with Paiyatamu, another flutist, in depictions of maize-grinding ceremonies. Some tribes say he carries seeds and babies on his back.

    In recent years, the emasculated (i.e. non-ithyphallic) version of Kokopelli has been adopted as a broader symbol of the Southwestern United States as a whole. His image adorns countless items such as t-shirts, ball caps, key-chains, and patio decor. He is also noticeable on the wall by the swimming pool on the home of Walter White (Bryan Cranston) in several episodes of Breaking Bad. A bicycle trail between Grand Junction, Colorado, and Moab, Utah, is now known as the Kokopelli Trail.

    Origins and development

    Kokopelli has been revered since at least the time of the Hohokam, Yuman, and Ancestral Puebloan peoples. The first known images of him appear on Hohokam pottery dated to sometime between 750 and 850 AD.

    Kokopelli may have originally been a representation of Aztec traders, known as pochtecas, who may have traveled to this region from northern Mesoamerica. These traders brought their goods in sacks slung across their backs and this sack may have evolved into Kokopelli’s familiar hump; some tribes consider Kokopelli to have been a trader. These men may also have used flutes to announce themselves as friendly as they approached a settlement. This origin is still in doubt, however, since the first known images of Kokopelli predate the major era of Mesoamerican-Ancestral Pueblo peoples trade by several hundred years, as well as the Aztec Empire and its pochtecas.

    Many believe that Kokopelli was more than a trader, and more significantly, an important conveyor of information and trinkets from afar. As a storyteller par excellence, Kokopelli had the gift of languages, with a formidable repertoire of body-language storytelling skills to complement his many talents. Kokopelli’s usual noisy announcement upon arrival secured both the identity, and therefore the safety, of his unique presence into a community. Often accompanied by an apprentice in his travels and trade, Kokopelli was important in linking distant and diverse communities together. In the South American Andes, the ‘Ekeko’ character functioned in much the same way. Upon arrival, his banging and clanging of his wares dangling all about his person signaled to all that a night of entertainment and trade of his goods and talismans was at hand.

    Even today, occasional outside visitors may be called or referred to as ‘Kokopelli’ when they bring news, stories, and trinkets from the outside world to share with the little pueblos or villages.

    Another theory is that Kokopelli is actually an anthropomorphic insect. Many of the earliest depictions of Kokopelli make him very insect-like in appearance. The name “Kokopelli” may be a combination of “Koko”, another Hopi and Zuni deity, and “pelli”, the Hopi and Zuni word for the robber fly, an insect with a prominent proboscis and a prominently rounded back. A more recent etymology is that Kokopelli means literally “kachina hump”. Because the Hopi were the tribe from whom the Spanish explorers first learned of the god, their name is the one most commonly used.

    Kokopelli is one of the most easily recognized figures found in the petroglyphs and pictographs of the Southwest The earliest known petroglyph of the figure dates to about 1000 AD. The Spanish missionaries in the area convinced the Hopi craftsmen to usually omit the phallus from their representations of the figure. As with most kachinas, the Hopi Kokopelli was often represented by a human dancer.

    A similar humpbacked figure is found in artifacts of the Mississippian culture of the United States southeast.Between approximately 1200 to 1400 AD, water vessels were crafted in the shape of a humpbacked woman. These forms may represent a cultural heroine or founding ancestor, and may also reflect concepts related to the life-giving blessings of water and fertility.

    Other names

    • Kokopele
    • Kokopeli
    • Kokopilli
    • Kokopilau
    • Neopkwai’i (Pueblo)
    • Ololowishkya (Zuni)
    • La Kokopel

  • Anasazi flute

    The Anasazi flute is the name of a prehistoric end-blown flute replicated today from findings at a massive cave in Prayer Rock Valley in Arizona, United States by an archaeological expedition led by Earl H. Morris in 1931. The team excavated 15 caves and the largest among them had 16 dwellings and many artifacts including several wooden flutes, which gave the site its name, the Broken Flute Cave.

    The flutes found in the cave were dated between 620 and 670 AD. They were all made of Box elder, have six finger holes and are end-blown. It is similar in many respects to a Hopi flute, which has only five finger holes.

    A detailed analysis using radiocarbon dating techniques was published in 2007. The analysis included one item from a burial pit in the Broken Flute Cave. The dating placed the artifact in the range 599–769 AD.

    The Anasazi flute has in recent years been reproduced and restored to the catalog of World flutes. While difficult to play in many respects, it has a rich, warm voice that can potentially span over three octaves.

  • Kazoo

    The kazoo is a musical instrument that adds a “buzzing” timbral quality to a player’s voice when the player vocalizes into it. It is a type of mirliton (which itself is a membranophone), one of a class of instruments which modifies its player’s voice by way of a vibrating membrane of goldbeater’s skin or material with similar characteristics. There is a smaller version of the kazoo, known as a humazoo

    Playing

    A kazoo player hums, rather than blows, into the bigger and flattened side of the instrument. The oscillating air pressure of the hum makes the kazoo’s membrane vibrate. The resulting sound varies in pitch and loudness with the player’s humming. Players can produce different sounds by singing specific syllables such as doo, too, who, or vrrrr into the kazoo.

    History

    Simple membrane instruments played by vocalizing, such as the onion flute, have existed since at least the 16th century. It is claimed that Alabama Vest, an African-American in Macon, Georgia, invented the kazoo around 1840, although there is no documentation to support that claim. The story originated with the Kaminsky International Kazoo Quartet, a group of satirical kazoo players, which may cast doubt on the veracity of the story, as does the name “Alabama Vest” itself.

    In 1879, Simon Seller received a patent for a “Toy Trumpet” that worked on the same principle as a kazoo: “By blowing through the tube A, and at the same time humming a sort of a head sound, a musical vibration is given to the paper covering c over the aperture b, and a sound produced pleasing to the ear.” Seller’s “toy trumpet” was basically a hollow sheet-metal tube, with a rectangular aperture cut out along the length of the tube, with paper covering the aperture, and a funnel at the end, like the bell of a trumpet. The first documented appearance of a kazoo was that created by an American inventor, Warren Herbert Frost, who named his new musical instrument kazoo in his patent #270,543 issued on January 9, 1883. The patent states, “This instrument or toy, to which I propose to give the name ‘kazoo’ “…” Frost’s kazoo did not have the streamlined, submarine shape of modern kazoos, but it was similar in that the aperture was circular and elevated above the length of the tube. The modern kazoo—also the first one made of metal—was patented by George D. Smith of Buffalo, New York, May 27, 1902.

    In 1916, the Original American Kazoo Company in Eden, New York started manufacturing kazoos for the masses in a two-room shop and factory, utilizing a couple of dozen jack presses for cutting, bending and crimping metal sheets. These machines were used for many decades. By 1994, the company produced 1.5 million kazoos per year and was the only manufacturer of metal kazoos in North America. The factory, in nearly its original configuration, is now called The Kazoo Factory and Museum. It is still operating, and it is open to the public for tours.

    In 2010, The Kazoo Museum opened in Beaufort, South Carolina with exhibits on kazoo history.

    Professional usage

    The kazoo is played professionally in jug bands and comedy music, and by amateurs everywhere. It is among the acoustic instruments developed in the United States, and one of the easiest melodic instruments to play, requiring only the ability to vocalize in tune. In North East England and South Wales, kazoos play an important role in juvenile jazz bands. During Carnival, players use kazoos in the Carnival of Cádiz in Spain and in the corsos on the murgas in Uruguay.

    In the Original Dixieland Jass Band 1921 recording of Crazy Blues, what the casual listener might mistake for a trombone solo is actually a kazoo solo by drummer Tony Sbarbaro.

    Red McKenzie played kazoo in a Mound City Blue Blowers 1929 film short. The Mound City Blue Blowers had a number of hit kazoo records in the early 1920s featuring Dick Slevin on metal kazoo and Red McKenzie on comb and tissue paper (although McKenzie also played metal kazoo). The vocaphone, a kind of kazoo with a trombone-like tone, was occasionally featured in Paul Whiteman’s Orchestra. Trombonist-vocalist Jack Fulton played it on Whiteman’s recording of Vilia (1931) and Frankie Trumbauer’s Medley of Isham Jones Dance Hits (1932). The Mills Brothers vocal group originally started in vaudeville as a kazoo quartet, playing four-part harmony on kazoo with one brother accompanying them on guitar.

    The kazoo is rare in European classical music. It does appear in David Bedford’s With 100 Kazoos, where, rather than having professionals play the instrument, kazoos are handed out to the audience, who accompany a professional instrumental ensemble. Leonard Bernstein included a segment for kazoo ensemble in the First Introit (Rondo) of his Mass. The kazoo was used in the 1990 Koch International and 2007 Naxos Records recordings of American classical composer Charles Ives’ Yale-Princeton Football Game, where the kazoo chorus represents the football crowd’s cheering. The brief passages have the kazoo chorus sliding up and down the scale as the “cheering” rises and falls.

    In Frank Loesser’s score for the 1961 Broadway musical comedy How to Succeed in Business Without Really Trying, several kazoos produce the effect of electric razors used in the executive washroom during a dance reprise of the ballad I Believe in You.

    In 1961, Del Shannon’s “So Long Baby” issued on Big Top Records featured a kazoo on the instrumental break. In addition to the single release it featured on the UK London American release of his album Hats Off To Del Shannon. Joanie Sommers’ 1962 hit single “Johnny Get Angry” featured a kazoo ensemble in its instrumental bridge, as did Dion’s hit of the same year, “Little Diane”, and Ringo Starr’s 1973 cover of “You’re Sixteen”.

    Jesse Fuller’s 1962 recording of his song “San Francisco Bay Blues” features a kazoo solo, as does Eric Clapton’s 1992 recording of the song on MTV’s Unplugged television show and album. On the song “Alligator” on the Grateful Dead album Anthem of the Sun, three members of the band play kazoo together. Many Paolo Conte performances include kazoo passages.

    Short kazoo performances appear on many modern recordings, usually for comic effect. For example, in his first album, Freak Out!, Frank Zappa used the kazoo to add comic feel to some songs — including one of his best known, “Hungry Freaks, Daddy”. In the song “Crosstown Traffic” from the album Electric Ladyland, Jimi Hendrix used a comb-and-paper instrument to accompany the guitar and accentuate a blown-out speaker sound. The song “Lovely Rita”, from the Beatles album Sgt. Pepper’s Lonely Hearts Club Band, uses combs-and-paper instruments. Kazoo playing parodied the sound of a military brass band in the Pink Floyd song “Corporal Clegg”.

    In the McGuinness Flint recording When I’m Dead and Gone, Benny Gallagher and Graham Lyle play kazoos in harmony during the instrumental break. The New Seekers’ live track (Ever Since You Told Me That You Loved Me) I’m A Nut features a kazoo solo by singer Eve Graham. British singer-songwriter Ray Dorset, the leader of pop-blues band Mungo Jerry, played the kazoo on many of his band’s recordings, as did former member Paul King.

    One of the best known kazooists of recent times is Barbara Stewart (1941–2011). Stewart, a classically trained singer, wrote a book on the kazoo, formed the “quartet” Kazoophony, performed kazoo at Carnegie Hall and on the Late Night with Conan O’Brien television show.

    The soundtrack of the film Chicken Run, released in 2000 and composed by John Powell and Harry Gregson-Williams, makes use of kazoos in several pieces.

    The video game Yoshi’s New Island, released in 2014, has synthesized kazoos in several tracks of its soundtrack.

    The Ukrainian polka band Los Colorados released a cover of Rammstein song “Du Hast”, which features a kazoo.

    In November 2010, Sandra Boynton produced and released a full-length 300-kazoo plus orchestra performance of Maurice Ravel’s Bolero, titled Boléro Completely Unraveled, performed by the Highly Irritating Orchestra. Boynton played solo kazoo on this recording noting “I am at the perfect level of musical incompetence for this.”

    Records

    On March 14, 2011, the audience at BBC Radio 3’s Red Nose Show at the Royal Albert Hall, along with a star-studded kazoo band, set a new Guinness World Record for Largest Kazoo Ensemble. The 3,910 kazooists played Wagner’s Ride of the Valkyries and the Dambusters March. This surpassed the previous record of 3,861 players, set in Sydney, Australia, in 2009. The current record of 5,190 was set later the same night in a second attempt.

    On August 9, 2010, the San Francisco Giants hosted a Jerry Garcia tribute night, in which an ensemble of an estimated 9,000 kazooists played “Take Me Out to the Ball Game.”

  • Cincinnati Open

    The Cincinnati Open (also known as the Cincinnati Masters) is an annual professional tennis event held in Cincinnati, United States. Due to previous sponsorship, it has also been known as: the Thriftway ATP Championships, the Great American Insurance ATP Championships, the Western & Southern Financial Group Masters and Women’s Open and, most recently, the Western & Southern Open. It is played on outdoor hard courts at the Lindner Family Tennis Center in Mason, Ohio, and is held in August. The event started on September 18, 1899, and is the oldest tennis tournament in the United States still played in its original city. It also is the third largest tennis event in the United States, after the US Open and the Indian Wells Masters. It is one of the ATP Masters 1000 tournaments on the ATP Tour, and one of the WTA 1000 tournaments on the WTA Tour.

    History

    The tournament was started in 1899 as the Cincinnati Open and was renamed in 1901 to Tri-State Tennis Tournament, a name it would keep until 1969 (it would later be known by several other names, including ATP Championships), and would eventually grow into the tournament now held in Mason. The original tournament was held at the Avondale Athletic Club, which sat on property that is now Xavier University, and would later be moved to several various locations due to changes in tournament management and surfaces. The first tournament in 1899 was played on clay courts (described in a newspaper article of the time as “crushed brick dust”), and the event was mostly played on clay until 1979 when it switched to hardcourts.

    In 1903, the tournament was moved to the Cincinnati Tennis Club, where it was primarily held until 1972. In 1974, the tournament was nearly dropped from the tennis calendar but moved at the last moment to the Cincinnati Convention Center, where it was played indoors and, for the first time since 1919, without a women’s draw. In 1975, the tournament moved to the Coney Island amusement park on the Ohio River, and the tournament began to gain momentum again.

    Between 1981 and 1989 it was a major tournament on the men’s Grand Prix Tennis Tour and part of the Grand Prix Super Series.

    In 1979 the tournament moved to Mason where a permanent stadium was built and the surface was changed from Har-Tru clay to hardcourt (DecoTurf II.). Later, two other permanent stadia were constructed, making Cincinnati the only tennis tournament outside the four Grand Slam events with three stadium courts – Center Court, Grandstand Court and Court 3. A new Court 3 was built in 2010, increasing the number of stadium courts to four, with the existing Court 3 renamed Court 9. The women’s competition was reinstated in 1988 for one year, and then again in 2004 when the organizers, with the help of the Octagon sports agency, bought the Croatian Bol Ladies Open and moved it to Cincinnati.

    In August 2008, the men’s tournament was sold to the United States Tennis Association, the owners of the US Open.

    In 2002, the tournament was sponsored for the first time by Western & Southern Financial Group, with the company continuing its sponsorship until at least 2016. In 2011 the men’s and women’s tournaments were played in the same week, and the name changed from the “Western & Southern Financial Group Masters and Women’s Open” to the “Western & Southern Open”.

    In 2022, the tournament was sold by the USTA to Ben Navarro’s Beemok Capital; in 2023, the tournament proposed an additional $22.5 million in state funding to help cover a proposed $150 million expansion to the Lindner Family Tennis Center, which included plans for the Cincinnati Open to expand to a 12-day format with a 96-player draw (joining the Indian Wells Open, Madrid Open, and Miami Open) and add additional programming. In May 2023, rumors emerged that Beemok was considering relocating the tournament to a proposed $400 million tennis complex in Charlotte, North Carolina. Beemok denied that relocation was being considered, stating, “We’ve had productive conversations with state and local representatives in Mason and the surrounding area and have made considerable efforts to develop a potential master plan to expand the event in its current location.” In June 2023, the city proposed a $15 million commitment and other economic incentives to keep the tournament in Mason, while State Senator Steve Wilson proposed a $25 million contribution and a $1 billion “super-capital improvement fund” for a state budget proposal.

    In October 2023, Beemok announced that the tournament will remain in Mason and that it be expanding the event to a 12-day format for both men and women, with the draws expanding from 56 to 96 players beginning in 2025.As part of the agreement, Western & Southern agreed to end its title sponsorship. Due to this, and in honour of the tournament’s 125th anniversary, the “Western & Southern Open” branding was dropped in 2024 in favor of returning to the Cincinnati Open name.

  • The LA Galaxy

    The LA Galaxy are Major League Soccer’s most successful club. Based in Carson, Calif. at Dignity Health Sports Park, the Galaxy have won the MLS Cup a record six times (2002, 2005, 2011, 2012, 2014, 2024), the MLS Supporters’ Shield four times (1998, 2002, 2010, 2011) and the Lamar Hunt U.S. Open Cup twice (2001, 2005), and one Concacaf Champions Cup (2000) since their inception in 1996. Under the direction of LA Galaxy President of Business Operations and Chief Operating Officer Tom Braun on the business operations side and LA Galaxy General Manager Will Kuntz on the soccer operations side, the Galaxy are the premier club in MLS, with stars like Landon Donovan, David Beckham, Robbie Keane, Steven Gerrard, Zlatan Ibrahimović, Javier Hernandez, Cobi Jones, Riqui Puig and Marco Reus representing LA over the team’s 29 years in MLS.

  • Avengers (comics)

    The Avengers are a team of superheroes appearing in American comic books published by Marvel Comics, created by writer-editor Stan Lee and artist/co-plotter Jack Kirby. The team made its debut in The Avengers (cover-dated September 1963). Labeled “Earth’s Mightiest Heroes”, the original Avengers consisted of Iron Man, Ant-Man, Hulk, Thor, and Wasp. Captain America was discovered trapped in ice in issue, and joined the group after they revived him. The Avengers are an all-star ensemble cast of established superhero characters from the Marvel Comics portfolio. Diegetically, these superheroes usually operate independently but occasionally assemble as a team to tackle especially formidable villains. This in contrast to certain other superhero teams such as the X-Men, whose characters were created specifically to be part of their team, with the team being central to their identity. The Avengers were created to create a new line of books to sell and to cross-promote Marvel Comics characters.

    An Iron Man fan might buy an Avengers book because Iron Man appears in them, and perhaps in turn take an interest in Thor, who appears in the same book as Iron Man’s friend and comrade. The cast usually features a few highly popular characters who have their own solo books, such as Iron Man, alongside a number of lesser-known characters who benefit from exposure, such as Quicksilver, Wonder Man, and Tigra.

    The Avengers have appeared in a wide variety of media outside of comic books, including several different animated television series and direct-to-video films. Beginning in 2008, the group were adapted in a film series from Marvel Studios, known as the Marvel Cinematic Universe, culminating with The Avengers in 2012, with more appearances of the team in subsequent films.

    Publication history

    The team debuted in The Avengers (September 1963). Much like the Justice League, the Avengers were an assemblage of superheroes who each had an existing series of his own. All of the characters were created by Stan Lee and Jack Kirby. This initial series, published bi-monthly through issue (July 1964) and monthly thereafter ran through issue (Sept. 1996), with spinoffs including several annuals, miniseries and a giant-size quarterly sister series that ran briefly in the mid-1970s. Writers of the first series included Roy Thomas, Steve Englehart, Gerry Conway, Jim Shooter, David Michelinie, and Roger Stern. Artists included John Buscema, Tom Palmer, Neal Adams, George Perez, John Byrne and Steve Epting.

    Other spinoff series include West Coast Avengers, initially published as a four-issue miniseries in 1984, followed by a 102-issue series (Oct. 1985–Jan. 1994), retitled Avengers West Coast with; and the 40-issue Solo Avengers (Dec.1987–Jan. 1991), retitled Avengers Spotlight with.

    Between 1996 and 2004, Marvel relaunched the primary Avengers title three times. In 1996, the “Heroes Reborn” line took place in an alternate universe, with a revamped history unrelated to mainstream Marvel continuity.

    The Avengers vol. 3 ran for 84 issues from February 1998 to August 2004. Early issues were written by Kurt Busiek and penciled by George Perez. To coincide with what would have been the 500th issue of the original series, Marvel changed the numbering, and The Avengers (Sept.– Dec. 2004), the one-shot Avengers Finale (Jan. 2005) became the “Avengers Disassembled” storyline and final issues. In January 2005, a new version of the team appeared in the ongoing title The New Avengers, followed by The Mighty Avengers, Avengers: The Initiative, and Dark Avengers. Avengers vol. 4 debuted in July 2010 and ran until January 2013. Vol. 5 was launched in February 2013. After Secret Wars, a new Avengers team debuted, dubbed the All-New, All-Different Avengers, starting with a Free Comic Book Day preview. Following Civil War II, the book was relaunched in 2016 as Avengers, while retaining the same writer and much of the cast from the All-New, All-Different run. The series ran for 11 issues before reverting to the numbering of the original Avengers series with issue. Starting with issue, all four Avengers titles being published at the time (Avengers, Uncanny Avengers, U.S. Avengers and Occupy Avengers) were merged into a single weekly series dubbed Avengers: No Surrender, lasting 16 issues, designed to close out this era of the team’s history.

    Following the conclusion of No Surrender in 2018, the series was relaunched again as Avengers.

    Fictional history

    1960s

    When the Asgardian god Loki seeks revenge against his brother Thor, his machinations unwittingly lead teenager Rick Jones to collect Ant-Man (Hank Pym), the Wasp, and Iron Man to help Thor and the Hulk, the latter of whom Loki used as a pawn. After the group vanquished Loki, Ant-Man stated that the five worked well together and suggested they form a team; the Wasp named the group Avengers.

    The roster changed almost immediately; in the second issue (November 1963), Ant-Man became Giant-Man, and at the end of the issue, the Hulk left once he realized how much the others feared his unstable personality. Captain America joined the team in issue (March 1964), and he was given “founding member” status in the Hulk’s place. The Hulk, upset about being replaced by Captain America and the apparent betrayal by Rick, sought revenge against the Avengers, who teamed up with the Fantastic Four to stop him in The Fantastic Four (May 1964). The Avengers went on to fight foes such as Baron Zemo, who formed the Masters of Evil, Kang the Conqueror, Wonder Man, and Count Nefaria.

    The next milestone came when every member but Captain America resigned; they were replaced by three former villains: Hawkeye and the Maximoff twins, Scarlet Witch and Quicksilver. Giant-Man, now calling himself Goliath, and the Wasp rejoined. Hercules became part of the team, while the Black Knight and Black Widow abetted the Avengers but did not become members until years later. Spider-Man was offered membership but did not join the group. The Black Panther joined after rescuing the team from the Grim Reaper and Klaw. The X-Men (June 1968) featured a crossover with The Avengers (June 1968). This was followed by the introduction of the android Vision. Pym assumed the new identity of Yellowjacket in issue and married the Wasp the following month.

    The Avengers headquarters was in a New York City building called Avengers Mansion, courtesy of Tony Stark (Iron Man’s real identity). The mansion was serviced by Edwin Jarvis, the Avengers’ faithful butler,and furnished with state of the art technology and defense systems, and included the Avengers’ primary mode of transport: the five-engine Quinjet.

    The prequel comic Avengers (Dec. 1999), by writer Roger Stern and artist Bruce Timm, told a retro-style story taking place between issue and, detailing Ant-Man’s decision to transform himself into Giant-Man.

    1970s

    The team encountered new characters such as Arkon in issue (April 1970) and Red Wolf in (Sept. 1970). The team’s adventures increased in scope as the team crossed into an alternate dimension and battled the Squadron Supreme, and fought in the Kree-Skrull War, an epic battle between the alien Kree and Skrull races and guest-starred the Kree hero, Captain Marvel. The Avengers briefly disband when Skrulls impersonating Captain America, Thor, and Iron Man used their authority as founders of the team and disbanded it. The true founding Avengers, minus the Wasp, reformed the team in response after complaints from Jarvis.

    Mantis joined the team along with the reformed Swordsman. “The Avengers-Defenders Clash” storyline crossed over between the two team titles. “The Celestial Madonna” arc linked Mantis’ origins to the very beginnings of the Kree-Skrull conflict in a time-spanning adventure involving Kang the Conqueror, and Immortus, who were past and future versions of each other. Mantis was revealed to be the Celestial Madonna, who was destined to give birth to a being that would save the universe. It was revealed that the Vision’s body had only been appropriated, and not created by Ultron, and that it had belonged to the 1940s Human Torch. With his origins clear to him, the Vision proposed to the Scarlet Witch. The “Celestial Madonna” saga ended with their wedding, presided over by Immortus. The Beast and Moondragon joined the team soon after. A seven-part story featured the Squadron Supreme and the Serpent Crown.

    Other classic storylines included “The Bride of Ultron”, the “Nefaria Trilogy”, and “The Korvac Saga”, which featured nearly every Avenger who joined the team up to that point. Henry Peter Gyrich became the Avengers’ liaison to the United States National Security Council. Gyrich was prejudiced against superhumans and acted in a heavy-handed, obstructive manner, and insisted that the Avengers follow government rules and regulations or else lose their priority status with the government. Among Gyrich’s demands was that the active roster be trimmed down to only seven members, and that the Falcon, an African American, be admitted to the team to comply with affirmative action laws. This last act was resented by Hawkeye, who because of the seven-member limit lost his membership slot to the Falcon. The Falcon, in turn, was unhappy to be the beneficiary of what he perceived to be tokenism, and decided to resign from the team, after which Wonder Man rejoined. The true origins of Quicksilver and the Scarlet Witch were revealed in a three-part story that ran in issues (July–Sept. 1979). After this adventure, the Scarlet Witch took a leave of absence and Ms. Marvel officially joined the team as her replacement.

    1980s

    The first major development was the breakdown of Hank Pym, with his frequent changes of costume and name being symptomatic of an identity problem and an inferiority complex. After he abused his wife, failed to win back the confidence of the Avengers with a ruse and was duped by the villain Egghead, Pym was jailed. Pym would later outwit Egghead and defeated the latest incarnation of the Masters of Evil single-handedly, and proved his innocence. Pym reconciled with the Wasp, but they decided to remain apart. Pym retired from super-heroics, but returned years later.

    This was followed by several major storylines, such as “Ultimate Vision” in which the Vision took over the world’s computer systems in a misguided attempt to create world peace; the formation of the West Coast Avengers; and “Avengers Under Siege” which involved the second Baron Zemo and the Masters of Evil taking over the mansion and severely injuring Jarvis and Hercules. “Assault on Olympus” featured Hercules’ father, Zeus, blaming the Avengers for his son’s injuries and brought them to Olympus for trial, and the “Heavy Metal” arc saw the Super Adaptoid organized several robotic villains for an assault on the team. New members during the 1980s included Tigra; the She-Hulk; Monica Rambeau (then going by the name Captain Marvel); Starfox (the brother of Thanos); Hawkeye’s wife, Mockingbird; and Namor, while Hank Pym emerged from retirement to join the West Coast Avengers. Spider-Man was again offered membership, but failed to gain admission due to security concerns by the Avengers’ government liaison.

    The villain Nebula falsely claimed to be the granddaughter of Thanos. The team relocated for a period to a floating island off the coast of New York called Hydrobase after Avengers Mansion was severely damaged during the events in “Under Siege”. Hydrobase was later sunk during the Acts of Vengeance crossover.

    The Avengers and West Coast Avengers changed to allow members to be active when available and reserved when not available and merged the two separate Avengers teams into one team with two bases. The Vision had his personality fundamentally altered, along with the discovery that the children of the Scarlet Witch and the Vision were actually illusions. The loss of the Scarlet Witch’s children and the Vision, who was disassembled by government agents in retaliation for the Ultimate Vision storyline, drove her insane, although she eventually recovered and rejoined the team. This story revealed that the Scarlet Witch’s powers included wide-range reality manipulation and she was what the time-traveling Immortus refers to as a “nexus being” setting the stage for 2004’s eventual Chaos and Avengers Disassembled storylines. This played out in the Darker than Scarlet storyline which ran in Avengers West Coast from issues #51–62 (Nov. 1989–Sept. 1990). The Avengers titles in late 1989 were involved in the major crossover event “Acts of Vengeance” where Loki assembled many of Marvel’s arch-villains, his inner circle consisted of Doctor Doom, Magneto, Kingpin, Mandarin, Wizard, and Red Skull, in a plot to destroy the team. Loki orchestrated a mass breakout of villains from prison facility, the Vault, as part of his “Acts of Vengeance” scheme, but he ultimately failed in his goal to destroy the Avengers.

    1990s

    The U.S. government revoked the Avengers’ New York State charter in a treaty with the Soviet Union. The Avengers then received a charter from the United Nations and the Avengers split into two teams again with a substitute reserve team backing up the main teams.

    At this point, ongoing storylines and character development focused on the Black Knight, Sersi, Crystal, Hercules, Vision, and Black Widow. Their primary antagonists in this run were the mysterious Proctor and his team of other-dimensional Avengers known as the Gatherers. During this period, the Avengers found themselves facing increasingly murderous enemies and were forced to question their rule against killing.

    This culminated in “Operation: Galactic Storm”, a 19-part storyline that ran through all Avengers-related titles and showcased a conflict between the Kree and the Shi’ar Empire. The team split when Iron Man and several dissidents executed the Supreme Intelligence against the wishes of Captain America. After a vote disbanded the West Coast Avengers, Iron Man formed a proactive and aggressive team called Force Works. During the team’s first mission, Wonder Man was killed again, though his atoms were temporarily scattered. Force Works later disbanded after it was revealed that Iron Man became a murderer via the manipulations of the villain Kang, the same storyline seeing Iron Man sacrificing himself and being replaced by his teenage counterpart from a parallel timeline.

    During the “Heroes Reborn” event, many of the Avengers together with the Fantastic Four and others, died trying to stop the psychic entity Onslaught, although it was revealed that Franklin Richards preserved those heroes in a pocket universe. Believing the main team to be gone, the Black Widow disbanded the Avengers, and only butler Edwin Jarvis remained to tend to the Mansion.

    The previous continuity of the Marvel Universe was set aside as the heroes were “reborn” in the pocket universe created by Franklin Richards to save his parents and their friends, while the “Heroes Reborn” line ended and the heroes returned to the prime Marvel Universe. This restoration also undid recent changes to the team members such as the Wasp being mutated into an insectoid state, Hawkeye being rendered deaf, and Stark being replaced by his teenage self, attributed to Franklin’s childish perception recreating the heroes in the manner he was more familiar with.

    After the Heroes Reborn series concluded, the Avengers comic was restarted with vol. 3 written by Kurt Busiek and pencilled by George Pérez. New members during this run included the revived Wonder Man, Justice, Firestar, Silverclaw, and Triathlon. The Avengers fought many of their traditional villains such as the Grim Reaper, Ultron, Count Nefaria, and Kang the Conqueror. The limited series Avengers Forever, starting during this period, was a time travel story that explored the history of the Avengers and resolved many outstanding questions about Kang and Immortus’s past manipulations of the team, featuring various Avengers from the past (Captain America immediately after “Secret Empire”, Hank Pym early in his Yellowjacket delusion, and Hawkeye just after the Kree-Skrull war), present (Hank Pym as Giant-Man and Janet as the Wasp) and possible futures (Genis-Vell and Songbird) working alongside Kang the Conqueror and Rick Jones as part of Kang’s attempt to escape his perceived ‘destiny’ as Immortus.

    2000s

    The Avengers were granted international authority by the United Nations. Members joining during that period included Jack of Hearts and the second Ant-Man. A new Captain Britain was added to the team. The “Avengers Disassembled” storyline followed. Titled Chaos, the story featured the deaths of some members and a loss of credibility for the team. The culprit is revealed to be the Scarlet Witch, who had gone insane after agonizing over the memory of her lost children and who subsequently lost control of her reality-altering powers. With the team in disarray and Avengers Mansion ruined, the surviving members agreed to disband.

    A new Avengers team formed, in the series New Avengers after a group of heroes banded together to thwart a break-out at super-villain prison the Raft, composed of Iron Man, Captain America, Luke Cage, Wolverine, Ronin, Spider-Man, Spider-Woman, and the mysterious Sentry. This was soon followed by the House of M event.

    In the company-wide “Civil War” story arc, Marvel superheroes were split over compliance with the U.S. government’s new Superhuman Registration Act, which required all superpowered persons to register their true identities with the federal government and become agents of same. The New Avengers disbanded, with a rebel underground starring in a series retaining The New Avengers in its trademarked cover logo and New Avengers in its copyright indicia. Luke Cage led this team, consisting of himself, Echo, Ronin, Spider-Man, Spider-Woman, Wolverine, Iron Fist, and Doctor Strange. During the long-term Secret Invasion by the shape-shifting alien race the Skrulls, it was revealed that Spider-Woman had been abducted and replaced by the Skrull queen Veranke before she even joined the team. After the Skrulls’ defeat, Spider-Woman was rescued along with other abducted and replaced heroes. During the company-wide story arc “Dark Reign”, Echo and Iron Fist left the team and the Avengers gained Ms. Marvel, Bucky Barnes as a fill-in Captain America, and Mockingbird.

    Iron Man, in the series The Mighty Avengers, formed a team under the aegis of the government’s Fifty State Initiative program, and took up residency in New York City, joined by Ares, Black Widow, Sentry, Wasp, Wonder Man, and leader Carol Danvers as Ms. Marvel. After the events of the Secret Invasion story arc, Norman Osborn assumed control of the formerly S.H.I.E.L.D.-sponsored Avengers, now under the auspices of his own agency, H.A.M.M.E.R. All but Ares and the Sentry left this team — the Wasp appeared to have died — and the team migrated to the series Dark Avengers. Osborn recruited Marvel Boy to pose as Captain Marvel and Daken to pose as his father, Wolverine, bringing Moonstone, Bullseye, and Venom from his previous Thunderbolts team to impersonate Ms. Marvel, Hawkeye, and Spider-Man respectively.

    In The Mighty Avengers, Pym, assumed the Wasp identity in tribute to his fallen ex-wife, led a new team of Avengers, and claimed the name for his team as he was the only founding Avenger on any of the three active Avengers rosters (Wasp and Cap were dead, Thor was acting solo, and Iron Man was on the run from Osborn). His team operated under a multinational umbrella group, the Global Reaction Agency for Mysterious Paranormal Activity (GRAMPA). This team featured the roster of Hercules, Amadeus Cho, Stature, the Vision, Jocasta, U.S. Agent, Quicksilver, Magneto, and Pym. Loki in disguise as the Scarlet Witch was a recurring character. Iron Man and the Hulk were briefly with them.

    2010s

    After Osborn’s Dark Avengers are exposed as criminals and their attack on Asgard was thwarted, the next iteration of the Avengers roster consists of Thor, Hawkeye, Spider-Man, Wolverine, Captain America, Spider-Woman, Iron Man, and team leader Maria Hill. Steve Rogers, briefly eschewing his Captain America persona, responds to Luke Cage’s concerns about the team reverting to old methods by granting Cage’s “New Avengers” recognition as an official team independent of Stark’s more traditional Avengers. Bucky Barnes as Captain America joined the main Avengers, while Iron Fist, Power Woman, and the Thing joined Cage’s team, Spider-Man and Wolverine maintaining dual membership in both teams. Rogers was an occasional presence and Victoria Hand was added as a government liaison for the New Avengers with Rogers’s backing.

    A second series, titled Secret Avengers, was released in May 2010, written by Ed Brubaker with Mike Deodato as the regular artist. The second volume of the New Avengers series was launched in June 2010, written by Bendis and drawn by Stuart Immonen. A fourth title, Avengers Academy, was launched in June 2010, replacing Avengers: The Initiative. Christos Gage served as writer, with Mike McKone as artist.

    Following a meeting between Rogers and MI-13, Captain Britain accepts a position with the Avengers. Noh-Varr later does as well. Bruce Banner made arrangements with Rogers for the Red Hulk to join.

    The “Shattered Heroes” storyline leads to several changes in the main Avengers lineup, with Quake and Storm being recruited, and the Vision rejoining the team. Wolverine and Spider-Man leave the main team and become more involved with the New Avengers. During the events of the “Avengers vs. X-Men” storyline, Storm quits to side with her fellow mutats as a member of the X-Men. The Avengers dismiss Noh-Varr after he attempted to betray the team, though ultimately he did not. The conflict ends with both teams united but defeated by an unrepentant Cyclops. A new series, Uncanny Avengers, debuted in the flagship title of the Marvel NOW! initiative. The title is written by Rick Remender with art by John Cassaday, and the team contains members of both the Avengers and the X-Men. As well, a biweekly Avengers title was launched, written by Jonathan Hickman and drawn by different artists for each story arc. Hickman also began writing New Avengers. During the 2014 “AXIS” storyline, when a now-evil Scarlet Witch invades Latveria, Doctor Doom forms his own team of Avengers consisting of 3D Man, Elsa Bloodstone, Stingray, Valkyrie, and U.S. Agent. After various heroes and villains experience a moral inversion in the battle against the Red Skull empowered with Professor Charles Xavier’s abilities, Rogers later assembles Magneto, Doctor Doom, the Absorbing Man, Carnage, Deadpool, the Enchantress, the Hobgoblin, the fifth Jack O’Lantern, Loki, Mystique, and Sabretooth, all temporarily ‘inverted’ to act as heroes, to assist he and Spider-Man in defeating the inverted Avengers and X-Men until the original spell can be undone. During the “Time Runs Out” storyline, Sunspot created a team of the Avengers, consisting of himself, Black Widow, Cannonball, Manifold, Pod, Shang-Chi, Smasher, Spider-Woman, Validator, and the Children of the Sun. The “Multiversal Avengers” division of this team consists of Abyss, the Ex Nihili (including Ex Nihilo), Hyperion, Nightmask, Odinson, and Star Brand.

    Following the destruction and reconstruction of reality in the 2015 “Secret Wars” storyline, a new team is created known as Avengers Idea Mechanics, set to tackle Avengers-level threats beyond simply fighting villains, while the Avengers Unity Squad continues to operate to support mutant relations. Iron Man forms a new team of Avengers in the All-New All-Different Avengers series consisting of himself, the Vision, Nova, Ms. Marvel (Kamala Khan), Spider-Man (Miles Morales), Captain America (Sam Wilson), and Thor (Jane Foster). Following the “Civil War II”, storyline, the title was canceled and replaced with a new volume of the regular Avengers title. The roster was also changed, where following Iron Man being placed in a coma, and Spider-Man, Nova, and Ms. Marvel’s resignation from the team (who instead teamed up with other heroes their own age to form their own group the Champions), the remaining three members are joined by Spider-Man (Peter Parker), Hercules and Wasp (Nadia Pym) to form a new team.

    During the 2017 “Secret Empire” storyline, when Captain America was ‘reprogrammed’ to believe that he had been a Hydra sleeper agent since childhood, the Hydra regime formed their own Avengers. This team consisted of Odinson (Thor currently doubting his worth and believing that Rogers must be ‘right’ as he could wield Mjolnir when Thor couldn’t, unaware that Hydra had used the cosmic cube to change the nature of the enchantment), Deadpool, a Chthon-possessed Scarlet Witch, Vision (who was suffering from an A.I. Virus created by Arnim Zola), Taskmaster, Eric O’Grady’s Life Model Decoy counterpart Black Ant, and Doctor Octopus’ Superior Octopus appearance.However, in the final stand, Odinson rejects Rogers’ authority and sides with his old allies, while the Vision’s daughter purges him of the virus and Brother Voodoo exorcises Chthon from the Witch. Taskmaster and Black Ant free the imprisoned Champions in exchange for leniency, and the true version of Steve Rogers was restored, using Mjolnir against his counterpart.

    In May 2018, another volume for the series was launched as part of Marvel’s Fresh Start initiative, written by Jason Aaron and drawn by Ed McGuinness. This new volume also saw the return of the main three core members, as Steve Rogers and Thor met up with Tony Stark to convince him to reassemble the group with themselves at its core. The reunion was consolidated by the machinations of Loki, who facilitated the arrival of the world-threatening Dark Celestials as a ploy to get the Avengers back in action, resulting in the participation of Black Panther, Captain Marvel, She-Hulk, Ghost Rider and Blade, with the Black Panther being elected chairperson. After the Dark Celestials were defeated, the Celestials set upright the corpse of the long-time dead Progenitor in the North Pole. The Avengers refurbished the Progenitor’s corpse, transforming it into their base of operations, the Avengers Mountain.

    2020s

    Team roster

    The Avengers team lineup is known for being perpetually fluid and changing, with many members coming and going, often more than once. The founding members of the team were Iron Man, Thor, Hulk, Ant-Man and the Wasp. Hulk left after a single issue, which would become a running gag among splinter team members (for example, Spider-Man leaving the second incarnation of the Avengers Unity Division), and his founder status was retroactively filled in by Captain America. Later additions and frequent members include Hawkeye, Wonder Man, Falcon, Black Panther, Captain Marvel, Scarlet Witch, Quicksilver, and Vision, among others.

    There are also numerous splinter teams that have formed, starting with the West Coast Avengers in 1984. Each of these splinter teams tends to specialize in a way the main team does not. Members of these teams can be on other splinter teams or on the main team. These teams are, in alphabetical order:

    A-Force: An all-female team formed after the Secret Wars event.
    Avengers A.I.: A team consisting of people with various artificial intelligence-related abilities.
    Avengers Academy: A school for teenage superheroes who served as Avengers members and received training from full-time Avengers members. The school was shut down shortly after the events of Avengers Arena.
    Avengers Unity Division: A team meant to bridge the gap between humans, mutates, and mutants following Avengers vs. X-Men by including members of all groups. Their mission statement was later expanded to include Inhumans.
    Avengers World: A team that specializes in international protection following the disbandment of the U.S.Avengers; not to be confused with the comic book of the same name.
    Great Lakes Avengers: A farcical team consisting of low-level heroes living in Wisconsin.

    Mighty Avengers:

    A team formed by Iron Man as part of the Fifty-States Initiative, which was broken apart after the events of Secret Invasion.
    A team formed by Hank Pym after the previous Mighty Avengers collapsed.
    A team formed by Luke Cage to deal with more street-level threats in response to the latest invasion by Thanos. It was shut down by Iron Man during the AXIS event.
    New Avengers:
    A team created after the disbandment of the main team to replace them. This team was known for including more prestigious Marvel superheroes, such as Spider-Man, Wolverine, and Daredevil, and disbanded after the retirement of its leader, Luke Cage.
    A team formed by Sunspot after he purchased and reformed Advanced Idea Mechanics.
    A similar team to Sunspot’s, going by the name “Avengers Idea Mechanics”.
    Savage Avengers: A team consisting of supernatural and/or antiheroic members.
    Secret Avengers:
    A black operation team formed by Steve Rogers.
    Another undercover team formed by S.H.I.E.L.D.
    U.S.Avengers: A patriotic-themed team.
    War Avengers: A temporary team formed during The War of the Realms event.
    West Coast Avengers: A team formed by Vision to expand the Avengers’ reach.
    Young Avengers: A team consisting of teenage and young adult heroes.

    Of these teams, only the main team, Avengers World, the Great Lakes Avengers, the Savage Avengers, and the Young Avengers are currently active. Additionally, all members of the Fantastic Four, as well as various members of the X-Men, Heroes for Hire, and other prominent Marvel teams have served as members of the Avengers.

    Enemies

    The Avengers have a long list of villains they frequently face.

    Some of the most recurring include Ultron, Kang the Conqueror, Loki and Thanos.

    Cultural impact and legacy

    Critical response

    Abraham Josephine Riesman of Vulture included the Avengers team in their “12 Teams That Defined Superhero Storytelling” list. Michael Doran of Newsarama ranked the Avengers team 1st in their “Best Superhero Teams of All Time” list. Comic Book Resources asserted, “The Avengers are known as Earth’s mightiest heroes, and that appellation is self-explanatory. The team combines Marvel’s greatest heroes into one powerful unit, an assemblage of heroes that faces down the deadliest threats the Marvel Universe can throw at them. The team has proven to be one of the most potent groups in all of comics, boasting legendary heroes and battling in titanic wars for the fate of all reality,” and ranked the Avengers team 1st in their “10 Most Important Marvel Hero Teams” list, 1st in their “Every Marvel Superhero Team” list, 1st in their “Marvel: The 10 Strongest Superhero Teams” list, and 2nd in their “Marvel: 10 Most Powerful Teams” list.

    Poushali Guharauth of Sportskeeda ranked the Avengers 1st in their “10 Best Superhero Teams of All Time” list. Jason Serafino of Complex ranked the Avengers 2nd in their “10 Best Superhero Teams In Comics” list. Chris Isaac of Screen Rant the Avengers team 2nd in their “15 Best Superhero Teams Of All Time” list. Geoff Boucher of Deadline ranked the Avengers team 3rd in their “Stan Lee’s Legacy: Ranking The Hollywood Heroes Co-Created By The Marvel Comics Icon” list.

    Impact

    Most of the characters that appear in Marvel Comics’ books are set in the same fictional universe, known as the Marvel Universe. They occasionally make guest appearances in each other’s books, and more regularly in team books, such as The Avengers. Such crossovers encouraged readers to buy other books in the Marvel Comics catalogue, and readers became engrossed not just in the individual characters but in their web of relationships across the broader setting. DC Comics pioneered this idea with the Justice Society of America and the Justice League, likewise promoting and developing the DC Universe. Many readers devoted themselves to just one of these two comic book universes. After all, they were both quite large and didn’t overlap. Thus, the superhero fan community developed sub-communities of DC devotees and Marvel devotees.

    Marvel Cinematic Universe

    Marvel Studios repeated this business strategy when it produced the Marvel Cinematic Universe (MCU), culminating with the release of The Avengers in 2012. Before the MCU, superhero movies were usually isolated productions mostly because of licensing issues, but the shared universe model has led to its continued growing success. In response, Warner Brothers (which owns DC Comics) began to produce its own series of interconnected superhero movies known as the DC Extended Universe (DCEU), culminating with Justice League in 2017. Movies tend to have bigger audiences than comic books, so, the general public are more aware that the likes of Wonder Woman and Captain America existed in separate universes owned by different companies. The movies raised brand awareness of DC Comics and Marvel Comics.

    As of June 2022, the MCU is the highest-grossing film franchise in history, having collectively grossed over $26 billion in box-office revenue, more than twice that by the second largest franchise, Star Wars.

    Theme park attractions

    Avengers Campus

    After the acquisition by Disney in 2009, Marvel films began to be marketed at the Innoventions attraction in Tomorrowland at Disneyland. For Iron Man 3, the exhibit, entitled “Iron Man Tech Presented by Stark Industries”, featured the same armor display that was shown at the 2012 San Diego Comic-Con, with the Marks I-VII and the new Mark XLII. In addition, there was a simulator game, titled “Become Iron Man”, that used Kinect-like technology to allow the viewer to be encased in an animated Mark XLII armor and take part in a series of “tests,” in which you fire repulsor rays and fly through Tony Stark’s workshop. The game was guided by J.A.R.V.I.S., who is voiced again by Paul Bettany. The exhibit also had smaller displays that included helmets and chest pieces from the earlier films and the gauntlet and boot from an action sequence in Iron Man 3. The exhibit for Thor: The Dark World was called “Thor: Treasures of Asgard”, and featured displays of Asgardian relics and transports guests to Odin’s throne room, where they were greeted by Thor. Captain America: The Winter Soldier’s exhibit, “Captain America: The Living Legend and Symbol of Courage”, featured a meet and greet experience.

    From May to September 2017, Disneyland Resort featured the “Summer of Heroes”, which sees members of the Guardians and Avengers making appearances throughout the Disneyland Resort. Additionally, the Guardians of the Galaxy: Awesome Dance Off event was featured, which involved Peter Quill / Star-Lord blasting music from his boombox, along with the Avengers Training Initiative, a limited experience where Black Widow and Hawkeye “assemble a group of young recruits to see if they have what it takes to be an Avenger.” Marvel-related food and merchandise was also available throughout Hollywood Land at Disney California Adventure during the “Summer of Heroes”.

    In March 2018, the Walt Disney Company announced three new Marvel-themed areas inspired by the MCU to Disney California Adventure, Walt Disney Studios Paris, and Hong Kong Disneyland. The developments will be designed by Walt Disney Imagineering in collaboration with Marvel Studios and Marvel Themed Entertainment. As was established with Guardians of the Galaxy – Mission: Breakout!, Avengers Campus exists in its own theme park universe that is inspired by the MCU. Being in the MCU multiverse, Avengers Campus has a shared history with the MCU proper, with a few notable exceptions being the Blip from Avengers: Infinity War did not occur, and some characters who died, such as Tony Stark, are still alive.

    Walt Disney Studios Park

    In March 2018, the Walt Disney Company announced a new Marvel-themed area inspired by the MCU to Disneyland Paris’ Walt Disney Studios Park. The area includes a reimagined attraction where riders team up with Iron Man and other Avengers on a “hyper-kinetic adventure” on July 20, 2022. The park also hosted the “Summer of Super Heroes” live-action stage show from June–September 2018.

    Avengers: Quantum Encounter

    In July 2021, the immersive family dining experience “Avengers: Quantum Encounter” at the Worlds of Marvel restaurant on the Disney Wish cruise line was announced, which debuted when the cruise began voyages on July 14, 2022. The experience takes place during dinner with interactive elements and a full CGI recreation of the Wish’s upper decks. Paul Rudd, Evangeline Lilly, Anthony Mackie, Brie Larson, Kerry Condon, and Iman Vellani reprised their MCU roles, while Ross Marquand voiced Ultron after previously doing so in What If…?, in which he replaced James Spader. Chris Waitt directed Rudd and Lilly’s content, which was written by Steven Spiegel and featured visual effects by Framestore.

    Avengers S.T.A.T.I.O.N.

    In May 2014, the Avengers S.T.A.T.I.O.N. (Scientific Training and Tactical Intelligence Operative Network) exhibit opened at the Discovery Times Square center. The exhibit features replica set pieces, as well as actual props from the films, mixed with interactive technology and information, crafted through a partnership with NASA and other scientists. Titus Welliver also provides a “debrief” to visitors, reprising his role as S.H.I.E.L.D. agent Felix Blake. Created by Victory Hill Exhibits, Avengers S.T.A.T.I.O.N. cost $7.5 million to create, and ran through early September 2015.

    The exhibit also opened in South Korea at the War Memorial of Korea in April 2015, in Paris, France, at Esplanade de La Défense a year later, and in Las Vegas at the Treasure Island Hotel and Casino in June 2016. The Las Vegas version of the exhibit featured updated character details and corresponding science to incorporate the Marvel films that have released since the original exhibit in New York. Additionally, the Las Vegas version features Cobie Smulders reprising her role as Maria Hill to “debrief” visitors, replacing Welliver.

    Avengers: Damage Control

    In October 2019, Marvel Studios and ILMxLAB announced the virtual reality experience Avengers: Damage Control. The experience would be available for a limited time starting in mid-October 2019 at select Void VR locations. Avengers: Damage Control sees players taking control of one of Shuri’s Emergency Response Suits–which combine Wakandan and Stark Industries technologies–to defeat a threat alongside Doctor Strange, Ant-Man, and the Wasp. Letitia Wright, Benedict Cumberbatch, Paul Rudd, and Evangeline Lilly all reprise their MCU roles, while Ross Marquand voices Ultron, replacing James Spader. The experience was extended to the end of 2019.

    Other versions

    1950s Avengers

    A short-lived team of superheroes in the 1950s called themselves the Avengers. It consisted of Marvel Boy, Venus, the 3-D Man, Gorilla-Man, M-11, Jimmy Woo, Namora, and Jann of the Jungle, and existed in an alternate timeline that was erased by the time-manipulating Immortus. Agents of Atlas, a version of the group without 3-D Man and Jann, existed in mainstream continuity and eventually reformed in the present day.

    Age of Apocalypse

    A humanized version of the Avengers banded together during the Age of Apocalypse and were known as the Human High Council

    Avengers 1959

    The New Avengers vol. 2, revealed another 1950s Avengers team, formed by Nick Fury to hunt the last remnants of Nazi Germany and consisted of Fury himself, Dominic Fortune, Dum Dum Dugan, Namora, Silver Sable, Sabretooth, Kraven the Hunter, and Ulysses Bloodstone. A follow-up miniseries penned by Howard Chaykin showed this group assisted by Blonde Phantom, Eric Koenig and a brand new character British wizard and spy, Powell McTeague. That time they fought against a cult based on the Nazi party which employed several agents, including Baron Blood and Brain Drain.

    Avengers (1,000,000 B.C. version)

    In the one-shot issue that ties in with “Marvel Legacy”, there was a version of the Avengers that existed back circa 1,000,000 B.C. The line-up consists of Agamotto, Odin, Lady Phoenix and Stone Age versions of Black Panther, Ghost Rider, Iron Fist, and Star Brand. This group first came together to defeat an out-of-control Celestial called the Fallen where they defeated it and sealed it underground somewhere in South Africa.

    Avengers (1000 A.D. version)

    During the 11th century, it is revealed that Thor had formed that time period’s version of the Avengers with Boldof the Black, the Black Panther Nehanda, Chief Hellhawk, the Atlantean Gale who wielded the Iron Fist, and a Sasquatch Sorcerer Supreme named Murkfoot.

    Avengers Forever

    One of the timelines seen in Avengers Forever is an alternate future where Martians have ravaged Earth and killed most of its heroes. An older version of Black Panther leads a team of Avengers consisting of Killraven, Living Lightning, Jocasta, a new Crimson Dynamo, and Thundra.

    Avengers Next

    In the alternate future timeline known as MC2, the Avengers disbanded, and Avengers Mansion was a museum. An emergency forced Edwin Jarvis to sound an alert, and a new generation of heroes formed a new team of Avengers. Most of the new Avengers were children of established Marvel superheroes.

    House of M: Avengers


    In an alternate reality which was created by the Scarlet Witch, the Avengers were a street gang of superpowered humans formed by Luke Cage in Hell’s Kitchen, a human ghetto in the mutant-ruled reality. Although they were initially criminals, the disenfranchised human residents came to view the Avengers as their protectors and would often go to Cage when the mutant authorities refused to help them

    Marvel 2099


    In Marvel 2099, the Avengers were mentioned in this timeline where it was mentioned that Captain America, Thor, Iron Man, and Hulk were known members.

    On the unified reality of Earth-2099, there was a group of Avengers that consisted of Black Widow, Black Widow 2098, Cable, Captain America, Daredevil (Samuel Fisk), Frankenstein’s Monster, a 2099 version of Grey Hulk, Iron Man, Moon Knight, Phastos, Relur, Roman the Sub-Mariner, Strange, and Thor. When Doom 2099 brought an end of the Heroic Age, it had affected the Avengers in different ways.Black Widow 2098, Daredevil, Frankenstein’s Monster, Grey Hulk, Phastos, Relur, Roman the Sub-Mariner, and Strange were killed by the 2099 version of Masters of Evil. Cable and Moon Knight survived with the latter forming the 2099 version of the New Avengers who successfully avenged the fallen Avengers by defeating the Masters of Evil and having them remanded to a prison on the planet Wakanda.

    Marvel Zombies


    The Avengers existed as a team prior to a zombie contagion’s arrival in the original Marvel Zombies universe and resembled their pre-disassembled roster. When several of their members were infected, they set about eating humanity and sent out a bogus “Avengers Assemble” call to draw super-humans to the Avengers Mansion, infected more heroes and thus spread the virus. The team fell apart and many of its members were killed as time passed.

    The second team of zombie Avengers appeared in Marvel Zombies Return, set in another timeline where the original zombies had been sent after the final battle. That team was brought together to find food and kill any resistance (zombie or uninfected) and was led by Sentry. Also on the team were the zombies Moon Knight, Namor, Quasar, Quicksilver, Thundra, and Super-Skrull. They were joined by zombie Giant-Man of the original Zombiverse, who was trying to power a dimensional teleporter, but were all killed by Spider-Man’s New Avengers. The team was composed of himself with Iron Man (James Rhodes, who had escaped infection by the zombie virus by amputating his bitten limbs and replacing them with cybernetic implants), Sandman, and the zombie Hulk and Wolverine.

    Secret Wars


    During the “Secret Wars” storyline, the different domains of Battleworld have different versions of the Avengers:

    In the Battleworld domain of Spider-Island, the Avengers were taken over by the same spider-virus turning them into Man-Spiders that obeyed the Spider-Queen’s every command. It took a combination of Man-Wolf’s gemstone, Morbius the Living Vampire’s serum, the Lizard serum, and the Goblin formula to free some of the Avengers. After the Spider-Queen was defeated, Spider-Island is now a domain filled with Man-Spiders, Dinosaur People, Lizard People, Bird People, Vampires, and Werewolves.
    In the Battleworld domain of the Regency, Hawkeye has kept the Avengers alive in S.H.I.E.L.D. after most of its members and other known superheroes were defeated by Regent.
    In the Battleworld domain of Marville, the Avengers are children and consist of Captain America, Black Widow, Captain marvel, Falcon, Hawkeye, Hulk, Iron Man, Nick Fury, Scarlet Witch, She-Hulk, Spider-Man, Thor, Vision, and War Machine.
    In the Battleworld domain of the Kingdom of Manhattan, elements of Earth-616 and Earth-1610 helped to make this domain which caused a new reality that is a fusion of both with characters from both realities co-existing. The Avengers consisted of Captain America (Sam Wilson), Captain America (Steve Rogers), Black Widow, Hawkeye, Hulk’s Doc Green form, Iron Man, Ms. Marvel, Spider-Man, Thor, War Machine, Wasp, Wonder Man, and the Unity Division (Rogue, Quicksilver, Sabretooth, Scarlet Witch, and Vision) while the Ultimates consisted of Ben Grimm, Captain America, Hawkeye, Human Torch, Invisible Woman, Iron Man, and Thor.


    In the Battleworld domain of the City, the Holy Wood section of it has its version of the Avengers led by Baron Simon Williams and consists of Black Panther, Black Widow, Captain Marvel, Hercules, Jocasta, Moondragon, Vision, and Yellowjacket.
    In the Battleworld domain of 2099, the Avengers are a team of corporate superheroes sponsored by Alchemax. The group consists of Captain America (a Latina woman named Roberta Mendez), Black Widow (an African-American woman named Tania), Iron Man (a dwarf named Sonny Frisco), Hawkeye (a human/hawk hybrid named Max), and Hercules.


    In the Battleworld domain of the Walled City of New York, the Avengers are allied with S.H.I.E.L.D.’s part of the domain and consist of Captain America, Hulk, Iron Man, Rage, Scarlet Witch, She-Hulk, Spider-Man, and Thor.

    Ultimate Marvel


    Main article: Ultimates


    In the Ultimate Marvel Universe, the Avengers are named the Ultimates, and were formed by General Nicholas Fury to protect America against superhuman threats. They first appeared in The Ultimates by Mark Millar and Bryan Hitch. After the events of The Ultimates 2, the team left S.H.I.E.L.D. employment to become independent and financed by Tony Stark.

    A Black Ops team called the Avengers debuted sometime after the Ultimatum storyline. This version was a project headed up by Nick Fury and Tony Stark’s brother Gregory Stark to bring Captain America back. Its known members consisted of War Machine, Hawkeye, Black Widow II, Spider (an Asian in an orange and purple Spider-Man outfit who once claimed to be a spliced clone of Spider-Man and Professor X from the future), Tyrone Cash (who was the original Hulk before Bruce Banner), Red Wasp (a former Liberators member), and Nerd Hulk (an intelligent clone of Hulk who lacks Hulk’s rage). Additional members included Punisher (who joined the Avengers against a Ghost Rider manhunt) and the half vampire Blade (who joined the group to help against a vampire invasion).

    In other media

    Television

    Three animated series have been based on the team.

    The Avengers: United They Stand was mainly based on the Roy Thomas era of the group, and ran from 1999 to 2000.


    The Avengers: Earth’s Mightiest Heroes was based on the early adventures of the team, but also used many elements from other runs. The TV show ran for two seasons, from 2010 to 2012, and started presenting the original Avengers line-up founded by Iron Man, Thor, Ant-Man, Wasp and the Hulk, who leaves the group after battling Amora the Enchantress and Skurge. Captain America later joins the team, replacing him.


    Avengers Assemble is mainly based on the MCU iteration of the group and premiered on May 26, 2013. The show also changed its title to Avengers: Ultron Revolution (2016), Avengers: Secret Wars (2017) and Avengers: Black Panther’s Quest (2018).


    The Avengers appear in the Disney Junior series Spidey and His Amazing Friends.

    Film

    Marvel Animation has made three Avengers films, Ultimate Avengers, Ultimate Avengers 2, and Next Avengers.

    Marvel Cinematic Universe

    The Avengers are prominent in current popular culture due to the Marvel Cinematic Universe from Marvel Studios.

  • Books of Samuel

    The Book of Samuel (Hebrew: ספר שמואל, romanized: Sefer Shmuel) is a book in the Hebrew Bible, found as two books (1–2 Samuel) in the Old Testament. The book is part of the Deuteronomistic history, a series of books (Joshua, Judges, Samuel, and Kings) that constitute a theological history of the Israelites and that aim to explain God’s law for Israel under the guidance of the prophets.

    According to Jewish tradition, the book was written by Samuel, with additions by the prophets Gad and Nathan, who together are three prophets who had appeared within 1 Chronicles during the account of David’s reign.Modern scholarly thinking posits that the entire Deuteronomistic history was composed b.c.630–540 BCE by combining a number of independent texts of various ages.

    The book begins with Samuel’s birth and Yahweh’s call to him as a boy. The story of the Ark of the Covenant follows. It tells of Israel’s oppression by the Philistines, which brought about Samuel’s anointing of Saul as Israel’s first king. But Saul proved unworthy, and God’s choice turned to David, who defeated Israel’s enemies, purchased the threshing floor where his son Solomon would build the First Temple, and brought the Ark of the Covenant to Jerusalem. Yahweh then promised David and his successors an everlasting dynasty.

    In the Septuagint, a basis of the Christian biblical canons, the text is divided into two books, now called the First and Second Book of Samuel.

    Biblical narrative

    The Jerusalem Bible divides the two Books of Samuel into five sections. Further subheadings are also based on subdivisions in that version:

    1 Samuel 1:1–7:17. Samuel
    1 Samuel 8:1–15:35. Samuel and Saul
    1 Samuel 16:1–2 Samuel 1:27. Saul and David
    2 Samuel 2:1–20:26. David
    2 Samuel 21:1–24:25. Supplementary Information

    1 Samuel

    Samuel (1:1–7:17)

    The childhood of Samuel (1:1–4:1a)

    A man named Elkanah, an Ephraimite from the city of Ramathaim-Zophim, has two wives, Peninnah and Hannah, the latter of whom is his favourite wife. A rivalry between the two develops based on the fact that Peninnah has children and Hannah does not. The childless Hannah vows to Yahweh, the lord of hosts, that if she has a son, he will be dedicated to God. Eli, the priest of Shiloh, where the Ark of the Covenant is located, thinks she is drunk, but when he realises she is praying, he blesses her. A child named Samuel is born, and Samuel is dedicated to the Lord as a Nazirite – the only one besides Samson to be identified in the Bible. Hannah sings a song of praise upon the fulfilment of her vow.

    Eli’s sons, Hophni and Phinehas, sin against God’s laws and the people, specifically by demanding raw rather than boiled meat for sacrifice and having sex with the Tabernacle’s serving women. However, Samuel grows up “in the presence of the Lord”: his family visits him each year, bringing him a new coat, and Hannah has five more children. Eli tries to persuade his sons to stop their wickedness but fails. As punishment for this, a holy man arrives, prophesying that Eli’s family will be cut off and none of his descendants will see old age.

    One night, God calls Samuel, and, thinking Eli is calling him three times, he rushes to Eli. Eli informs him that God wishes to speak to him, and God informs Samuel that the earlier prophecy about Eli’s family is correct. Samuel is initially afraid to inform Eli, but Eli tells him not to be, and that God will do what is good in His sight. Over time, Samuel grows up and is recognised as a prophet.

    The Ark in Philistine hands (4:1b–7:17)

    The Philistines, despite their initial worries when hearing the Israelite ritual of the entrance of the Ark of the Covenant, defeat the Israelites at the Battle of Aphek, capturing the Ark and killing Hophni and Phinehas, thus fulfilling the earlier prophecy. When Eli hears of these two events, particularly the capture of the Ark, he falls off his chair and dies. His daughter-in-law, in turn, goes into labour at this, and names her son Ichabod (‘without glory’) in commemoration of the capture of the Ark.

    Meanwhile, the Philistines take the Ark to the temple of their god Dagon, who recognizes the supremacy of Yahweh. The Philistines are afflicted with plagues, are unable to take the Ark into any city on account of the fear of the populations of those cities, and return the ark to the Israelites, but to the territory of the tribe of Benjamin, to the city of Beth Shemesh, rather than to Shiloh, from where it is passed to the city of Kiriath Jearim, where a new priest, Eleazar, son of Abinadab, is appointed to guard the ark for the twenty years it is there. The Philistines attack the Israelites gathered at Mizpah in Benjamin. Samuel appeals to God, the Philistines are decisively beaten, and the Israelites reclaim their lost territory. Samuel sets up the Eben-Ezer (the stone of help) in remembrance of the battle, and takes his place as judge of Israel.

    Samuel and Saul (8:1–15:35)

    The institution of the monarchy (8:1–12:25)

    In Samuel’s old age, he appoints his sons Joel and Abijah as judges but, because of their corruption, the people ask for a king to rule over them. God directs Samuel to grant the people their wish despite his concerns: God gives them Saul from the tribe of Benjamin, whom Samuel anoints during an attempt by Saul to locate his father’s lost donkeys. He then invites Saul to a feast, where he gives him the best piece of meat, and they talk through the night on the roof of Samuel’s house. Samuel tells Saul to return home, telling him the donkeys have been found and his father is now worrying about him, as well as describing a series of signs Saul will see on the way home. Saul begins to prophesy when he meets some prophets, confusing his neighbours. Eventually, Samuel publicly announces Saul as king, although not without controversy.

    Shortly after, Nahash of Ammon lays siege to Jabesh Gilead and demands that everyone in the city have their right eye gouged out as part of the peace treaty. The Jabeshites send out messengers, looking for a saviour. When Saul hears of the situation, he gathers a 330,000-strong army and launches a surprise attack at night, leading Israel to victory and saving Jabesh, thus proving those who doubted him wrong. Saul’s kingship is renewed.

    Samuel is aware he is the final judge and that the age of kings is about to begin, and speaks to the Israelites, demonstrating his innocence and recapping the history of Israel. He calls on the Lord to send thunder and rain, and rebukes the people for their desire for a king. Nonetheless, he tells them that as long as they refrain from idol worship, they will not perish – but if they do, calamity will befall the kingdom.

    The beginning of Saul’s reign (13:1–15:35)

    Despite his numerous military victories, Saul disobeys Yahweh’s instructions. First of all, after a battle against the Philistines, he does not wait for Samuel to arrive before he offers sacrifices. Meanwhile, it turns out that the Philistines have been killing and capturing blacksmiths in order to ensure the Israelites do not have weapons, and so the Israelites go to war essentially with sharpened farm instruments. Saul’s son Jonathan launches a secret attack by climbing a pass into the Philistine camp and kills twenty people in the process. The panic this creates leads to a victory for the Israelites. Jonathan finds some honey and eats it, despite a royal decree not to eat until evening.

    Jonathan begins to doubt his father, reasoning an even greater victory could have been achieved if the men had eaten. The royal decree has other unintended knock-on effects, namely that the men start killing and eating animals without draining the blood. To counteract this, Saul sets up an altar so the proper laws can be observed. When a priest suggests asking God before launching another attack, God is silent, leading Saul to set up a pseudo-legal procedure to ascertain whose fault it is that God has abandoned them. The lot falls on Jonathan, but the men refuse to let him be executed since he is the reason for their victory.

    Over time, Saul fights the Moabites, the Ammonites, the Edomites, the Zobahites, the Philistines and the Amalekites, winning victory over them all. His kingdom is in a constant state of war, and he constantly recruits new heroes to his army. However, he disobeys God’s instruction to destroy Amalek: Saul spares Agag, the Amalekite ruler, and the best portion of the Amalekite flocks to present them as sacrifices. Samuel rebukes Saul and tells him that God has now chosen another man to be king of Israel. Samuel then kills Agag himself.

    Saul and David (16:1–31:13)

    David at court (16:1–19:7)

    Samuel travels to Bethlehem to visit a man named Jesse, with God promising Samuel can anoint one of his sons as king. However, while inspecting Jesse’s sons, God tells Samuel that none of them are to be king. God tells Samuel to anoint David, the youngest brother, as king. Saul becomes ill and David comes to play the harp to him. Saul takes a liking to David and David enters Saul’s court as his armor-bearer and harpist.

    A new war against the Philistines begins, and a Philistine champion named Goliath emerges, challenging any Israelite to one-on-one combat, with the loser’s people becoming subject to the winner. David goes to take food to his brothers in the Israelite camp, learns of the situation and the reward Saul is willing to give to the person who kills him great wealth, his daughter’s hand in marriage and exemption from taxes for the killer’s family and tells Saul he will kill Goliath. Saul wants him to wear his armour, but David finds he cannot because he is not used to it. Seeing David’s youth, Goliath begins to curse him. David slings a stone into Goliath’s forehead, and Goliath dies. David cuts off Goliath’s head with Goliath’s sword.

    Jonathan befriends David. Saul begins to send David on military missions and quickly promotes him given his successes, but begins to become jealous of David after the Israelites make up a song about how much more successful David is than Saul. One day, Saul decides to kill David with a spear, but David avoids him. Saul realises that God is now with David and no longer with him, making him scared of David. He therefore seeks other ways to pacify David. First, he sends him on military campaigns, but this only makes him more successful.

    Next, he tries to marry him off to his daughter Merab, but David refuses, and so Merab is married off to the nobleman Adriel. However, Michal, another of Saul’s daughters, is in love with David. Although David is still unsure about becoming son-in-law to the king, Saul requires only 100 Philistine foreskins as dowry. Although this is a plan to have David captured by the Philistines, David kills 200 Philistines and brings their foreskins back to Saul.

    Saul then plots David’s death, but Jonathan talks him out of it.

    The flight of David (19:8–21:16)

    Once again Saul tries to kill David with his spear, and so David decides to escape, lowered out of a window by Michal, who then takes an idol, covers it in clothes and places goat’s hair on its head to cover David’s escape. David visits Samuel. When Saul finds this out, he sends men to capture David, but when they see Samuel they begin prophesying, as does Saul when he tries to capture David himself.

    David then visits Jonathan, and they argue about whether Saul actually wants to kill David. David proposes a test: he is to dine with the king the following day for the New Moon festival. However, he will hide in a field and Jonathan will tell Saul that David has returned to Bethlehem for a sacrifice. If the king accepts this, he is not trying to kill him, but if he becomes angry, he is. Jonathan devises a code to relay this information to David: he will come to the stone Ezel, shoot three arrows at it and tell a page to find them. If he tells the page the arrows are on his side of the stone, David can come to him, but if he tells them they are beyond the stone, he must run away. When Jonathan puts the plan into action, Saul attempts to kill him with his spear. Jonathan relays this to David using his code and the two weep as they are separated.

    David arrives at Nob, where he meets Ahimelech the priest, a great-grandson of Eli. Pretending he is on a mission from the king and is going to meet his men, he asks for supplies. He is given the showbread and Goliath’s sword. He then flees to Gath and seeks refuge at the court of King Achish, but feigns insanity since he is afraid of what the Philistines might do to him.

    David the outlaw (22:1–26:25)

    David travels to the cave of Adullam near his home, where his family visit him, until he finds refuge for them at the court of the king of Moab in Mizpah.

    One of Saul’s servants, Doeg the Edomite, saw David at Nob, and informs Saul that he was there. Saul arrives at the town, concludes that the priests are supporting David and has Doeg kill them all. One priest gets away: Abiathar, son of Ahimelech, who goes to join David. David accepts him, since he feels somewhat responsible for the massacre. David liberates the village of Keilah from the Philistines with the help of God and Abiathar. When God tells him that Saul is coming and the citizens of Keilah will hand him over to Saul, David and his men escape to the desert of Ziph, where Jonathan comes and recognises him as the next king. Some Ziphites inform Saul that David is in the desert, but Saul’s search is broken off by another Philistine invasion.

    After the invasion, Saul learns David is now living in the desert of En Gedi and resumes his search for him. At one point, he enters a cave to relieve himself. David and his men are further back in the cave. They discuss the possibility of killing Saul, but David opts to merely cut a corner off his robe and use this as proof that he does not in fact wish to kill Saul. Saul repents of how he has treated David, recognises him as the next king and makes him promise not to kill off his descendants.

    Samuel dies, and, after mourning him, David moves on to the Desert of Paran. Here he meets the shepherds of a Calebite named Nabal, and his men help protect them. At sheep-shearing time, he sends some of his men to ask for food. Nabal refuses, preferring to keep his food for his household. When his wife, Abigail, hears of this, she takes a large amount of supplies to David herself. This turns out to be at exactly the right moment, since David had just threatened to kill everyone in Nabal’s home. Abigail begs for mercy, and David agrees, praising her wisdom. That night Nabal has a feast, so Abigail waits until morning to tell him what she has done. He has a heart attack and dies ten days later. David marries Abigail and a woman from Jezreel named Ahinoam, but in the meantime Saul has married David’s first wife, Michal, off to a nobleman named Palti, son of Laish.

    Saul decides to return to pursuing David, and the Ziphites alert him as to David’s whereabouts. Saul returns to the desert of Ziph and sets up camp. One night, David and two companions, Achimelech the Hittite and Abishai son of Zeruiah (his nephew), go to Saul’s camp and find him asleep on the ground. Abishai advocates killing him, but David once again resists, content with taking a spear and water jug lying by Saul’s head. The next morning, David advises Abner, Saul’s captain, to put the soldiers to death for not protecting Saul, citing the absence of the spear and water jug as evidence. Saul interrupts, and once again repents of his hunt. He blesses David, David returns his spear and Saul returns home.

    David among the Philistines (27:1–31:13)

    David joins the Philistines out of fear of Saul, taking his wives with him and brutally destroying his enemies, largely the Geshurites, the Girzites and the Amalekites, but makes the Philistines believe he is attacking the Israelites, the Jerahmeelites and the Kenites instead. King Achish is pleased with him, and supposes he will continue to serve him. Eventually, the Philistines go to war with the Israelites, and David goes with them.

    Meanwhile, Saul is growing increasingly anxious about the upcoming battle, but cannot get advice from God. He decides to attempt to contact Samuel from beyond the grave. While he has expelled all the witches and spiritists, he learns that one remains at Endor. After Saul assures her she will not be punished, she agrees to summon Samuel. Samuel is not happy to be disturbed, and reveals that the Philistines will win the battle, with Saul and his sons dying in the process. Saul is shocked and, although at first reluctant, eats some food and leaves.

    Back in the Philistine camp, several of the rulers are not happy with the idea of fighting alongside David, suspecting he may defect during the battle. Achish therefore reluctantly sends David back instead of bringing him to Jezreel with the Philistine army. When David and his men arrive in Ziklag, they find it sacked by the Amalekites, and David’s wives taken captive. After seeking God’s advice, David decides to pursue the raiding Amalekites, finding the Egyptian slave of one, abandoned when he became ill, who can show them the band. When they are located and found to be feasting, David fights all day, with only 400 escaping on camels. David recovers everything and returns to the Besor Valley, where 200 men who were too exhausted to come with him have been guarding supplies. David announces all are to share in the treasure, and even sends some to the elders of Judah when he returns to Ziklag.

    Meanwhile, the Battle of Mount Gilboa is raging on and, as Samuel said, the Philistines are winning. Saul’s three sons have been killed, and he himself has been wounded by arrows. Saul asks his armor-bearer to run his sword through him rather than let him be captured by the Philistines, but does it himself when the armor-bearer refuses. When they see the battle going badly, the Israelites flee their towns, allowing the Philistines to occupy them. The next day, the Philistines find Saul, behead him, and take his armour to the temple of Astarte and his body to Beth Shan. When they hear what has happened, the citizens of Jabesh Gilead take his body and perform funerary rites in their city.

    2 Samuel

    Saul and David (continued) (1:1–1:27)

    David among the Philistines (continued) (1:1–1:27)

    Back in Ziklag, three days after Saul’s death, David receives news that Saul and his sons are dead. It transpires that the messenger is an Amalekite who, at Saul’s insistence, had killed Saul to speed his death along, and brought his crown to David. David orders his death for having killed God’s anointed. At this point, David offers a majestic eulogy, where he praises the bravery and magnificence of both his friend Jonathan and King Saul.

    David (2:1–20:26)

    David King of Judah (2:1–4:12)

    David returns to Hebron at God’s instruction. The elders of Judah anoint David as king, and as his first act he offers a reward to the people of Jabesh Gilead for performing Saul’s funerary rites. Meanwhile, in the north, Saul’s son Ish-bosheth, supported by Abner, has taken control of the northern tribes. David and Ish-bosheth’s armies meet at the Pool of Gibeon, and Abner and Joab, another son of Zeruiah and David’s general, agree to have soldiers fight in one-on-one combat. All this achieves is twelve men on each side killing each other, but a battle follows and David wins. During the Benjaminites’ retreat, Joab’s brother Asahel chases Abner and Abner kills him, shocking everyone. Joab and Abishai continue Asahel’s pursuit. A truce is declared when they reach a hill to avoid further bloodshed, and Abner and his men are able to cross the Jordan.

    The war continues as David builds a family. Meanwhile, the House of Saul is getting weaker. When Ish-bosheth accuses Abner of sleeping with Saul’s concubine Rizpah, Abner offers to join David, which David accepts as long as he brings Michal with him. At the same time, David sends a petition to Ish-bosheth for the return of Michal, which Ish-bosheth agrees to. Patiel follows her crying until he is told to return home. Following the return of Michal, Abner agrees to get the elders of Israel to agree to make David king. Joab believes Abner was lying in his purpose of coming to David and, after recalling him to Hebron, kills him in revenge for Asahel. David curses Joab’s family to always contain a leper, someone disabled or someone hungry. He then holds a funeral for Abner.

    By this point, the only other surviving member of Ish-bosheth’s family is Mephibosheth, Jonathan’s disabled son, who was dropped by his nurse as she attempted to escape the palace after the deaths of Saul and Jonathan. Ish-bosheth is murdered by Rechab and Baanah, two of his captains who hope for a reward from David, who stab him and cut off his head. They bring his head to David, but David has them killed for killing an innocent man. They are hanged by the pool of Hebron and Ish-bosheth’s head is buried in Abner’s tomb.

    David King of Judah and of Israel (5:1–8:18)

    David is anointed king of all Israel.

    Against all odds, David captures Jerusalem from the Jebusites. He takes over the fortress of Zion and builds up the area around it. Hiram I, king of Tyre sends craftsmen to build David a palace. Meanwhile, David’s family continues to grow. The Philistines decide to attack Israel now that David is king, but God allows David to defeat them in two battles, first in Baal Perizim and next in the Valley of Rephaim.

    The Ark is currently still in Baalah (another name for Kiriath Jearim), but David wants to bring it to Jerusalem. He puts it on a cart and employs the priests Uzzah and Ahio, both sons of Abinadab and brothers of Eleazar, to accompany it. A grand procession with musical instruments is organised, but comes to a sudden halt when the oxen stumble, causing Uzzah to touch the Ark and die. David is afraid to take it any further and stores it in the house of a man named Obed-Edom. When, after three months, Obed-Edom and his family have received nothing but blessings, David takes the Ark to Jerusalem. As part of the ceremony bringing the Ark into the city, David dances in front of it wearing nothing but an ephod. Michal sees this and is annoyed, but David says it was for the Lord, and thus it was not undignified. Michal never has any children.

    David wishes to build a temple, arguing that he should not be living in a palace while God lives in a tent. Nathan, a prophet, agrees. However, that night Nathan has a dream in which God informs him that David should not build him a temple for three reasons. Firstly, God has not commanded it, and has never complained about living in a tent before. Secondly, God is still working to build David and his house up and establish the Israelites in the Promised Land. Thirdly, God will establish one of David’s sons as king. He will build the temple, and his house will never be out of power. When Nathan reports this to David, David prays to God, thanking him for these revelations. David defeats the enemies of Israel, slaughtering Philistines, Moabites, Edomites, Syrians, and Arameans. He then appoints a cabinet.

    David’s family and the intrigues for the succession (9:1–20:26)

    Mephibosheth (9:1–9:13)

    David asks if anyone from the House of Saul is still alive so that he can show kindness to them in memory of Jonathan. Ziba, one of Saul’s servants, tells him about Mephibosheth. David informs Mephibosheth that he will live in his household and eat at his table, and Mephibosheth moves to Jerusalem.

    The Ammonite war and birth of Solomon (10:1–12:31)

    Nahash, king of Ammon dies and his son Hanun succeeds him. David sends condolences, but the Ammonites suspect his ambassadors are spies and humiliate them before sending them back to David. When they realise their mistake, they fear retaliation from David and amass an army from the surrounding tribes. When David hears that they are doing this, he sends Joab to lead his own army to their city gates, where the Ammonites are in battle formation. Joab decides to split the army in two: he will lead an elite force to attack the Aramean faction, while the rest of the army, led by Abisai, will focus on the Ammonites.

    If either enemy force turns out to be too strong, the other Israelite force will come to help their comrades. The Arameans flee from Joab, causing the Ammonites to also flee from Abishai. The Israelite army returns to Jerusalem. The Arameans regroup and cross the Euphrates, and this time David himself wins a decisive victory at Helam. The Arameans realise they cannot win, make peace with Israel and refuse to help the Ammonites again. The following spring, Joab destroys the Ammonites.

    While Joab is off at war, David remains in Jerusalem. One morning, he is standing on the roof of his palace when he sees a naked woman performing ablutions after her period. David learns her name is Bathsheba, and they have sex. She becomes pregnant. Seeking to hide his sin, David recalls her husband, Uriah the Hittite, from battle, David encourages him to go home and see his wife, but Uriah declines in case David might need him, and sleeps in the doorway to the palace that night. David, in spite of inviting Uriah to feasts, continues to be unable to persuade him to go home.

    David then deliberately sends Uriah on a suicide mission. David loses some of his best warriors in this mission, so Joab tells the messenger reporting back to tell David that Uriah is dead. David instructs Joab to continue the attack of the city. After Bathsheba has finished mourning Uriah, David marries her and she gives birth.

    Nathan comes to David and tells him a parable. In a town, there are a rich man and a poor man. The rich man has much livestock, but the poor man has only one lamb whom he loves like a child. One day, the rich man has a guest for dinner, and instead of slaughtering one of his own livestock, took the poor man’s lamb and cooked it. David angrily insists the rich man be put to death, but Nathan tells him he is the man, saying he has committed a sin to get something he already had plenty of (wives), and prophesies that his family will be gripped by violence, and someone will have affairs with his wives publicly.

    David repents, and Nathan tells him that while he is forgiven and will not die, his son with Bathsheba will. The child becomes ill, and David spends his time fasting and praying, but to no avail, because the child dies. David’s attendants are scared to tell him the news, worried about what he may do. He surprises everyone by ending his fasting, saying that he was fasting and praying was an attempt to persuade God to save his child, whereas fasting now isn’t going to bring the child back. After they have mourned, David and Bathsheba have another child, who they name Solomon (also called Jedediah).

    Back on the front line, in the city of Rabbah, Joab has gained control of the water supply. Joab invites David to finish capturing the city so that it may be named after himself. David gathers an army and travels up himself. He wins a victory, crowns himself king of the Ammonites, takes a large amount of plunder and puts the Ammonites into forced labour before returning to Jerusalem.

    Absalom (13:1–20:26)

    A complicated controversy begins to develop within the palace. Amnon, David’s son by Ahinoam, becomes lovesick for Tamar, David’s daughter by Maacah, daughter of Talmai, king of Geshur. Amnon’s advisor and cousin Jonadab suggests he pretend to be ill and ask Tamar to come and prepare bread for him so he can eat out of her hand. When she comes to his house, Amnon tells her to come to his bedroom. Here, after she refuses to have sex with him, Amnon rapes her. He then forces her to leave the house. She rips the gown which symbolises she is a virgin, puts ashes on her hand and walks around wailing. Tamar’s brother, Absalom, and David learn about this and become angry.

    Two years later, Absalom is shearing sheep at Baal Hazor and invites David and all his sons to come. David refuses, but blesses him and sends Amnon and the rest of his sons to him. Absalom holds a feast and gets Amnon drunk. He then instructs his servants to kill Amnon in revenge for his rape of Tamar. David’s other sons are disgusted and return to Jerusalem. David hears a rumour that Absalom has killed all of David’s sons, but Jonadab assures him that only Amnon is dead. Meanwhile, Absalom goes to live with his grandfather in Geshur for three years. After David has finished mourning Amnon, he considers visiting Absalom.

    Joab wants to help David, so he tells a wise woman from Tekoa to travel to Jerusalem pretending to be in mourning and speak to the king. The woman tells a story about her two sons, one of whom killed the other and whose death is now being called for. After some cajoling, David agrees to issue a decree ensuring that her son is not killed. The woman turns this back on David, and asks, then, why he has not forgiven his own son.

    After the woman admits that Joab put her up to this, David agrees to allow Absalom back to Jerusalem, but insists he does not come to the palace. Absalom becomes popular in Jerusalem due to his good looks. His family also grows during this time. Two years pass without Absalom being recalled to court. When Joab refuses to help him, Absalom sets his field on fire. This gets Joab’s attention, and finally Absalom manages to convince him to persuade David to allow him back to court.

    Absalom purchases a magnificent chariot, and begins campaigning to become a judge, principally by waiting outside the city gate, listening to the concerns of people coming to the king and pretending there is no-one to hear them, as well as embracing anyone who bows to him. Four years pass, and Absalom travels to Hebron, claiming to be fulfilling a vow, but in fact he hatches a plan to get the tribes of Israel to proclaim him king. The 200 guests who follow him do not know of his plan, and while he is at Hebron Absalom summons Ahitophel, David’s counselor.

    David is told of the increasing support for Absalom and decides to flee Jerusalem. He takes with him his wives and concubines, with the exception of ten, and a number of Cerethites, Pelethites and Gittites, led by a general named Ittai, who comes with David only after insisting on it. Abiathar and another priest named Zadok, together with a number of Levites who are guarding the Ark, also come, but go back when David tells them to return the Ark to Jerusalem. The procession climbs the Mount of Olives, where he meets his confidant Hushai the Arkite, who he sends back to Jerusalem to act as a spy, seeking to disrupt Ahitophel’s plans.

    On the other side of the mountain, David meets Ziba, who brings donkeys and fruit as supplies. He claims that Mephibosheth is hoping to be restored to the throne of Saul in the chaos, and David grants Ziba Mephibosheth’s estates. As the party approaches Bahurim, a Benjaminite named Shimei begins cursing and stoning David for the bloodshed he caused in the House of Saul. Abishai suggests executing him, but David considers that God has told Shibei to curse him and lets him carry on.

    Back in Jerusalem, Ahitophel and Hushai arrive at Absalom’s court. Absalom is at first suspicious of Hushai’s presence, but ultimately accepts him. Ahitophel suggests Absalom sleeps with David’s concubines who he left to take care of the palace in order to entrench the division between David and Absalom, so Absalom pitches a tent on the palace roof and does this in the view of all the Israelites. Ahitophel then suggests launching a sneak attack on David with 12,000 men. Hushai points out that David and his men are fighters, and that they could defeat the men, reducing morale. He suggests Absalom form a much larger army and lead it into battle himself.

    God has decided to frustrate Ahitophel’s advice so that Absalom can be defeated, so Absalom follows Hushai’s advice. Hushai then goes to Zadok and Abiathar and tells them to get word to David to cross the fords. Their sons, Ahimaaz and Jonathan, respectively, are staying at En Rogel, where they receive the message. Unfortunately, one of Absalom’s spies sees them so they have to hide in a well in Bahurim. The well’s owner’s wife hides them and lies to Absalom’s men that they have crossed the brook. After Absalom’s men are gone, the pair make it to King David and he manages to cross the Jordan in time.

    David and Absalom meet at Mahanaim, and David’s allies bring his army food, given his army is tired and exhausted after its time in the wilderness. David divides his army into thirds: one led by Joab, one led by Abishai and one led by Ittai. David intends to come out with his men, but his generals veto it. He decides to stay at the city, and instructs his generals to be gentle with Absalom. The battle is fought in the Wood of Ephraim. This proves to be a victory for David, in part because of the treacherous terrain. As Absalom meets David’s men, he passes under a tree. His long hair gets caught in the tree and he is hanged. Joab gets word of this, finds him and plunges three javelins into his heart, killing him. Joab declares the battle over and buries Absalom. Absalom’s monument is the pillar he built during his lifetime.

    Ahimaaz and a Cushite run to tell David the news of his victory and his son’s death. Ahimaaz declares the victory, but is not sure yet what the situation with Absalom is. The Cushite bears the same news, but also tells David that Absalom is dead. David begins to mourn, wishing he had died instead of Absalom. This prompts his men to start mourning as well, causing Joab to enter his tent in an attempt to talk sense into him. Joab points out that the battle has saved not only David’s life, but the lives of his wives and concubines, and thus it is humiliating for the men to have to mourn for the enemy. David agrees to come out and encourage the men.

    Given the sudden change in situation, the elders of Israel begin to argue about what to do next. David convinces the elders of Judah to escort him back to Jerusalem. They are joined by Shimei, who apologises to David. Abishai once again calls for the death penalty, but once again David grants clemency. Mephibosheth also comes to David, and explains the earlier situation: he had wanted to come with David and had told Ziba to saddle his donkeys, but Ziba had betrayed and slandered him. David offers to allow him and Ziba to split the land, but Mephibosheth allows Ziba to take the lot in celebration of David’s triumph.

    David invites his host in Mahanaim, Barzillai, to return to Jerusalem with him, but Barzillai protests on the basis that he is now eighty years old and thus will gain no enjoyment from coming. He gives David his servant Kimham in his place, and David promises to look after him. A scuffle breaks out between the Judahites and the other Israelites about why they specifically got to escort the king home. Attempting to resolve the issue, a Benjaminite named Sheba son of Bichri launches a rebellion against David, which all the tribes except Judah back.

    Back in Jerusalem, David begins to sort out the issues that were caused by his absence. First, he puts the ten concubines who were left behind into a guarded house and gives them pensions but does not sleep with them, allowing them to live the rest of their lives as widows. He then begins to sort out a defence against Sheba. He tells Amasa, the general whom he wishes to replace Joab, to summon the Judahite troops and have them in Jerusalem within three days, something he fails at. David therefore tells Abishai to start pursuing Sheba to effectively put down his rebellion before it has begun.

    Amasa meets Abishai and Joab at Gibeon. Amasa goes to meet Joab, but Joab’s dagger falls out of his tunic, stabbing Amasa in the stomach, killing him. He is covered with a cloth and placed in a field, and the army continues pursuing Sheba. They meet him at Abel Beth Maakah, a stronghold of Sheba’s rebellion, and begin to lay siege to it. A wise woman asks them why they want to destroy the city, and Joab responds they don’t want to destroy it, but merely end Sheba’s rebellion. The wise woman cuts off Sheba’s head and throws it to Joab from the city walls, thus ending the siege.

    Supplementary information (21:1–24:25)

    2 Samuel concludes with four chapters, chapters 21 to 24, that lie outside the chronological succession narrative of Saul and David, a narrative that will continue in The Book of Kings. Chapter 21 tells the story of a three-year long famine which takes place at the start of David’s reign. God explains this is a punishment for Saul’s genocide of the Gibeonites, a people group who are the remnants of the Amorites, whom Israel had promised to spare but Saul has massacred. David calls the Gibeonites and asks what he can do to make amends, hoping this will end the famine.

    The Gibeonites ask for seven of Saul’s descendants to kill, and David agrees. He spares Mephibosheth, but hands over Rizpah’s sons Armoni and Mephibosheth and the five sons of Merab and Adriel. They are killed by the Gibeonites and their bodies are exposed at the start of the barley harvest. Rizpah protects the bodies, and David agrees to take the bones of Saul, Jonathan and those killed by the Gibeonites and bury them in the tomb of Kish in Zelah. This pleases God and the famine ends.

    Another war then occurs with the Philistines. In the first battle, Abishai kills Ishbi-benob, a Philistine who had sworn to kill David, which leads to David’s army refusing to let him fight alongside them again for his own protection. The second battle takes place at Gob, and this time Sibbekai the Hushathite kills a Philistine named Saph. A third battle also takes place in Gob, where Elhanan, son of Jair kills Goliath’s brother. In the fourth battle, at Gath, Jonathan, son of Shimeah, kills a huge man with six fingers on each hand and six toes on each foot.

    Chapter 22 is similar to Psalm 18, and is a song David sang when he was delivered from Saul.

    Chapter 23 begins with David’s last words, a subdued speech in which David expresses gladness at the goodness of his house. It then tells stories of a group of men identified as ‘David’s Mighty Warriors’. Josheb-Basshebeth, Eleazar, son of Dodai and Shammah, son of Agee the Hararite all single-handedly win battles against the Philistines. One day, while David and his men are hiding in the cave of Adullam, David becomes homesick and, hearing the Philistines have taken over Bethlehem, cries out desiring water from Bethlehem’s well.

    These three men risk their lives to work their way through Philistine lines and bring water from the well back to David. David refuses to drink it and offers it to God because his warriors risked their lives for it. Abishai, we learn, achieved his high position by single-handedly killing three hundred men. Another warrior, Benaniah, son of Jehoiada, kills Moab’s two mightiest warriors, a lion, and a huge Egyptian with his own spear. The chapter finishes by listing David’s other mighty warriors, known as the Thirty.

    Chapter 24 tells the story of more calamities on Israel. God is angry once again at Israel, so he instructs David to take a census. Joab has his reservations, but ultimately relents. When the results come in, David realises what he has done, and begs God for mercy. Gad the prophet offers David three choices of punishment: three years of famine, three months of pursuit by his enemies or three days of plague. David chooses the plague. 70,000 people die.

    After three days the angel of death reaches Jerusalem, and is on the threshing floor of a man named Araunah the Jebusite, when God tells him to stop. David is horrified, arguing that it should be him and his family who are punished. Gad tells David to build an altar on the threshing floor of Araunah the Jebusite. Araunah offers to sell the land to David for free but David insists on paying. David pays fifty shekels of silver and builds the altar, stopping the plague.

    Composition

    Versions

    1 and 2 Samuel were originally (and, in most Jewish bibles, still are) a single book, but the first Greek translation, called the Septuagint and produced around the 2nd century BCE, divided it into two; this was adopted by the Latin translations used in the early Christian church of the West, and finally introduced into Jewish bibles around the early 16th century.

    In imitation of the Septuagint what is now commonly known as 1 Samuel and 2 Samuel, are called by the Vulgate, 1 Kings and 2 Kings respectively. What are now commonly known as 1 Kings and 2 Kings would be 3 Kings and 4 Kings in Bibles dating from before 1516. It was in 1517 that use of the division we know today, used by Protestant Bibles and adopted by Catholics, began. Traditional Catholic and Orthodox Bibles still preserve the Septuagint name; for example, the Douay–Rheims Bible.

    The Hebrew text that is used by Jews today, called the Masoretic Text, differs considerably from the Hebrew text that was the basis of the first Greek translation, and scholars are still working at finding the best solutions to the many problems this presents.

    Historical accuracy

    The Books of Samuel are considered to be based on both historical and legendary sources, primarily serving to fill the gap in Israelite history after the events described in Deuteronomy. According to Donald Redford, the Books of Samuel exhibit too many anachronisms to have been compiled in the 11th century BCE.

    Authorship and date of composition

    According to passages 14b and 15a of the Bava Basra tractate of the Talmud, the book was written by Samuel up until 1 Samuel 25, which notes the death of Samuel, and the remainder by the prophets Gad and Nathan. Critical scholars from the 19th century onward have rejected this idea. However, even prior to this, the medieval Jewish commentator Isaac Abarbanel noted that the presence of anachronistic expressions (such as “to this day” and “in the past”) indicated that there must have been a later editor such as Jeremiah or Ezra.Martin Noth in 1943 theorized that Samuel was composed by a single author as part of a history of Israel: the Deuteronomistic history (made up of Deuteronomy, Joshua, Judges, Samuel and Kings). Although Noth’s belief that the entire history was composed by a single individual has been largely abandoned, his theory in its broad outline has been adopted by most scholars.

    The Deuteronomistic view is that an early version of the history was composed in the time of king Hezekiah (8th century BCE); the bulk of the first edition dates from his grandson Josiah at the end of the 7th century BCE, with further sections added during the Babylonian exile (6th century BCE) and the work was substantially complete 550 BCE. Further editing was apparently done even after then. For example, A. Graeme Auld, Professor of Hebrew Bible at the University of Edinburgh, contends that the silver quarter-shekel which Saul’s servant offers to Samuel in 1 Samuel 9 “almost certainly fixes the date of this story in the Persian or Hellenistic period”.

    The 6th-century BCE authors and editors responsible for the bulk of the history drew on many earlier sources, including (but not limited to) an “ark narrative” (1 Samuel 4:1–7:1 and perhaps part of 2 Samuel 6), a “Saul cycle” (parts of 1 Samuel 9–11 and 13–14), the “history of David’s rise” (1 Samuel 16:14–2 Samuel 5:10), and the “succession narrative” (2 Samuel 9–20 and 1 Kings 1–2). The oldest of these, the “ark narrative,” may even predate the Davidic era.

    This view of late compilation for Samuel has faced serious scholarly opposition on the basis that evidence for the Deuteronimistic history is scant, and that Deuteronimistic advocates are not in consensus as to the origin and extent of the History. Secondly, the basic theological concerns identified with the Deuteronimistic school are tenets central to Hebrew theology in texts that are widely regarded as predating Josiah. Thirdly, there are notable differences in style and thematic emphasis between Deuteronomy and Samuel. Finally, there are widely acknowledged structural parallels between the Hittite suzerain treaty of the 2nd millennium BCE and the Book of Deuteronomy itself, far before the time of Josiah. The alternative view is that it is difficult to determine when the events of Samuel were recorded: “There are no particularly persuasive reasons to date the sources used by the compiler later than the early tenth century events themselves, and good reason to believe that contemporary records were kept (cf. 2 Sam. 20:24–25).

    Sources

    The sources used to construct 1 and 2 Samuel are believed to include the following:

    Call of Samuel or Youth of Samuel (1 Samuel 1–7): From Samuel’s birth his career as Judge and prophet over Israel. This source includes the Eli narrative and part of the ark narrative.
    Ark narrative (1 Samuel 4:1b–7:1 and 2 Samuel 6:1–20): the ark’s capture by the Philistines in the time of Eli and its transfer to Jerusalem by David – opinion is divided over whether this is actually an independent unit.
    Jerusalem source: a fairly brief source discussing David conquering Jerusalem from the Jebusites.
    Republican source: a source with an anti-monarchial bias. This source first describes Samuel as decisively ridding the people of the Philistines, and begrudgingly appointing an individual chosen by God to be king, namely Saul. David is described as someone renowned for his skill at playing the harp, and consequently summoned to Saul’s court to calm his moods. Saul’s son Jonathan becomes friends with David, which some commentators view as romantic, and later acts as his protector against Saul’s more violent intentions. At a later point, having been deserted by God on the eve of battle, Saul consults a medium at Endor, only to be condemned for doing so by Samuel’s ghost, and told he and his sons will be killed. David is heartbroken on discovering the death of Jonathan, tearing his clothes as a gesture of grief.
    Monarchial source: a source with a pro-monarchial bias and covering many of the same details as the republican source. This source begins with the divinely appointed birth of Samuel. It then describes Saul as leading a war against the Ammonites, being chosen by the people to be king, and leading them against the Philistines. David is described as a shepherd boy arriving at the battlefield to aid his brothers, and is overheard by Saul, leading to David challenging Goliath and defeating the Philistines. David’s warrior credentials lead to women falling in love with him, including Michal, Saul’s daughter, who later acts to protect David against Saul. David eventually gains two new wives as a result of threatening to raid a village, and Michal is redistributed to another husband. At a later point, David finds himself seeking sanctuary amongst the Philistine army and facing the Israelites as an enemy. David is incensed that anyone should have killed Saul, even as an act of mercy, since Saul was anointed by Samuel, and has the individual responsible, an Amalekite, killed.


    Court History of David or Succession narrative (2 Samuel 9–20 and 1 Kings 1–2): a “historical novel”, in Alberto Soggin’s phrase, telling the story of David’s reign from his affair with Bathsheba to his death. The theme is of retribution: David’s sin against Uriah the Hittite is punished by God through the destruction of his own family, and its purpose is to serve as an apology for the coronation of Bathsheba’s son Solomon instead of his older brother Adonijah. Some textual critics have posited that given the intimacy and precision of certain narrative details, the Court Historian may have been an eyewitness to some of the events he describes, or at the very least enjoyed access to the archives and battle reports of the royal house of David.


    Redactions: additions by the redactor to harmonize the sources together; many of the uncertain passages may be part of this editing.


    Various: several short sources, none of which have much connection to each other, and are fairly independent of the rest of the text. Many are poems or pure lists.

    Manuscript sources

    Four of the Dead Sea Scrolls feature parts of the books of Samuel: 1QSam, found in Qumran Cave 1, contains parts of 2 Samuel; and 4QSama, 4QSamb and 4QSamc, all found in Qumran Cave 4. Collectively they are known as The Samuel Scroll and date from the 2nd and 1st centuries BCE.

    The earliest complete surviving Hebrew copy of the books of Samuel is in the Aleppo Codex (10th century CE). The complete Greek text of Samuel is found in older manuscripts such as the 4th-century Codex Sinaiticus.

    Themes

    The Book of Samuel is a theological evaluation of kingship in general and of dynastic kingship and David in particular.The main themes of the book are introduced in the opening poem (the “Song of Hannah”): (1) the sovereignty of Yahweh, God of Israel; (2) the reversal of human fortunes; and (3) kingship. These themes are played out in the stories of the three main characters, Samuel, Saul and David.

    Samuel

    Samuel answers the description of the “prophet like Moses” predicted in Deuteronomy 18:15–22: like Moses, he has direct contact with Yahweh, acts as a judge, and is a perfect leader who never makes mistakes. Samuel’s successful defense of the Israelites against their enemies demonstrates that they have no need for a king (who will, moreover, introduce inequality), yet despite this the people demand a king. But the king they are given is Yahweh’s gift, and Samuel explains that kingship can be a blessing rather than a curse if they remain faithful to their God. On the other hand, total destruction of both king and people will result if they turn to wickedness.

    Saul

    Saul is the chosen one: tall, handsome and “goodly”, a king appointed by Yahweh, and anointed by Samuel, Yahweh’s prophet, and yet he is ultimately rejected. Saul has two faults which make him unfit for the office of king: carrying out a sacrifice in place of Samuel, and failing to exterminate the Amalekites, in accordance to God’s commands, and trying to compensate by claiming that he reserved the surviving Amalekite livestock for sacrifice.

    David

    One of the main units within Samuel is the “History of David’s Rise”, the purpose of which is to justify David as the legitimate successor to Saul. The narrative stresses that he gained the throne lawfully, always respecting “the Lord’s anointed” (i.e. Saul) and never taking any of his numerous chances to seize the throne by violence. As God’s chosen king over Israel, David is also the son of God (“I will be a father to him, and he shall be a son to me…” – 2 Samuel 7:14). God enters into an eternal covenant (treaty) with David and his line, promising divine protection of the dynasty and of Jerusalem through all time.

    2 Samuel 23 contains a prophetic statement described as the “last words of David” (verses 1–7) and details of the 37 “mighty men” who were David’s chief warriors (verses 8–39). The Jerusalem Bible states that last words were attributed to David in the style of Jacob and Moses. Its editors note that “the text has suffered considerably and reconstructions are conjectural”.

    1 Kings 2:1-9 contains David’s final words to Solomon, his son and successor as king.